Predictors and Implications of Parents’ Beliefs About the Age Appropriateness of LGBTQ+ Topics for Children

Abstract

U.S. policies increasingly limit lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or another marginalized gender identity or sexual orientation (LGBTQ +) education topics for children under the guise of age-appropriate curriculum, placing the responsibility of educating children about LGBTQ + identities and experiences on parents. We examined parents’ beliefs about the age-appropriateness of LGBTQ + topics for children, with implications for parent–child conversations and support for restricted LGBTQ + curriculum. In two studies, LGBTQ + and cisgender-heterosexual parents’ (N = 837) belief that LGBTQ + topics are age-appropriate for children at an older age was related to fewer parent–child conversations about LGBTQ + topics and greater anticipated discomfort having such conversations (Studies 1 and 2). Counter to hypotheses, exposure to restrictive LGBTQ + education policies did not affect age-appropriateness beliefs (Studies 1 and 2). In line with hypotheses, parents’ belief that sexual orientation discussion should be minimized was associated with later age-appropriateness beliefs and greater support for restricting LGBTQ + curriculum (cisgender-heterosexual parents; Study 2). These studies highlight age-appropriateness beliefs as a key mechanism hindering critical parent–child LGBTQ + conversations.

Keywords

LGBTQ +parent conversations lay beliefs difference-blind ideologies

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Annamma

S. A.

Jackson

D. D.

Morrison

(2017). Conceptualizing color-evasiveness: Using dis/ability critical race theory to expand a color-blind racial ideology in education and society. Race Ethnicity and Education, 20(2), 147–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2016.1248837

Apfelbaum

E. P.

Norton

M. I.

Sommers

S. R.

(2012). Racial color blindness: Emergence, practice, and implications. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 205–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411434980

Ayón

(2016). Talking to Latino children about race, inequality, and discrimination: Raising families in an anti-immigrant political environment. Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research, 7(3), 449–477.

Berkowitz

Ryan

(2011). Bathrooms, baseball, and bra shopping: Lesbian and gay parents talk about engendering their children. Sociological Perspectives, 54(3), 329–350.

Biafora

F. A.

Jr. Taylor

D. L.

Warheit

G. J.

Zimmerman

R. S.

Vega

W. A.

(1993). Cultural mistrust and racial awareness among ethnically diverse black adolescent boys. Journal of Black Psychology, 19(3), 266–281.

Bonilla-Silva

(2010). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and racial inequality in contemporary America (3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.

Buchanan

L. B.

Tschida

Bellows

Shear

S. B.

(2020). Positioning children’s literature to confront the persistent avoidance of LGBTQ topics among elementary preservice teachers. The Journal of Social Studies Research, 44(1), 169–184.

Cipollina

Sanchez

D. T.

(2024). “It’s best not to discuss sexual orientation”: An examination of strategic sexuality blindfolding beliefs [Manuscript invited for revision and resubmission]. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations.

Conley

T. D.

Calhoun

Evett

S. R.

Devine

P. G.

(2002). Mistakes that heterosexual people make when trying to appear non-prejudiced: The view from LGB people. Journal of Homosexuality, 42(2), 21–43.

10.

Edmunds

(2016). Gender and sexuality diverse student inclusive practices: Challenges facing educators. Journal of Initial Teacher Inquiry, 2, 36–39.

11.

Gawthrop

Helmstetter

(2022, February 7). Mood of the nation: How Americans think schools should teach about race, evolution and sex. APM Research Lab. https://www.apmresearchlab.org/motn/teaching-race-evolution-sex

12.

Goldberg

A. E.

Abreu

(2023). LGBTQ parent concerns and parent–child communication about the Parental Rights in Education Bill (“Don’t Say Gay”) in Florida. Family Relations, 73(1), 318–339.

13.

Goldberg

A. E.

Sweeney

Black

Moyer

(2016). Lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adoptive parents’ socialization approaches to children’s minority statuses. The Counseling Psychologist, 44(2), 267–299.

14.

Goodenow

Szalacha

Westheimer

(2006). School support groups, other school factors, and the safety of sexual minority adolescents. Psychology in the Schools, 43(5), 573–589.

15.

Harkness

Israel

(2018). A thematic framework of observed mothers’ socialization messages regarding sexual orientation. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 5(2), 260–272.

16.

Hatzenbuehler

M. L.

(2016). Structural stigma: Research evidence and implications for psychological science. American Psychologist, 71(8), 742–751.

17.

Hayes

A. F.

(2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling. Retrieved from http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf

18.

Hobby

Ullman

Ferfolja

(2021). Parental Attitudes Towards Inclusiveness Instrument (PATII): Psychometric evaluation of a new instrument measuring parental beliefs about gender and sexuality diversity inclusions in schools. Journal of School Psychology, 86, 222–242.

19.

Hoekstra

(2000). The Supreme Court and local public opinion. American Political Science Review, 94, 89–100.

20.

Holmes

IV . (2020). Sexuality blindness: A new frontier of diversity resistance. In Thomas

K. M.

(Ed.), Diversity resistance in organizations (pp. 34–57). Routledge.

21.

Izaguirre

(2023, March 22). DeSantis to expand “Don’t Say Gay” law to high school classes. PBS. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/desantis-to-expand-dont-say-gay-law-to-high-school-classes

22.

Juang

L. P.

Park

Kim

S. Y.

Lee

R. M.

Qin

Okazaki

Swartz

T. T.

Lau

(2018). Reactive and proactive ethnic–racial socialization practices of second-generation Asian American parents. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 9(1), 4–16.

23.

Kantor

Levitz

(2017). Parents’ views on sex education in schools: How much do Democrats and Republicans agree? PLOS ONE, 12(7), e0180250.

24.

Kirby

T. A.

Barreto

Korine

Hendy

Osman

Stadie

Tan

(2024). To conceal or reveal: Identity-conscious diversity ideologies facilitate sexual minority identity disclosure. European Journal of Social Psychology, 54(1), 199–218.

25.

Kosciw

J. G.

Greytak

E. A.

Zongrone

M. P.

Clark

C. M.

Truong

N. L.

(2020). The 2019 National School Climate Survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer youth in our nation’s schools. Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network.

26.

Kreitzer

R. J.

Hamilton

A. J.

Tolbert

C. J.

(2014). Does policy adoption change opinions on minority rights? The effects of legalizing same-sex marriage. Political Research Quarterly, 67, 795–808.

27.

Lavietes

Ramos

(2022, March 20). Nearly 240 anti-LGBTQ bills filed in 2022 so far, most of them targeting trans people. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc-out/out-politics-and-policy/nearly-240-anti-lgbtq-bills-filed-2022-far-targeting-trans-people-rcna20418

28.

Lazzam

(2023, September 21). Protests, counter-protests held across Canada over sexual orientation and gender identity in school curriculums. JURISTnews. https://www.jurist.org/news/2023/09/protests-counter-protests-held-across-canada-over-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-in-school-curriculums/

29.

Mekawi

Bresin

Hunter

C. D.

(2017). Who is more likely to “not see race”? Individual differences in racial colorblindness. Race and Social Problems, 9, 207–217.

30.

Mustanski

B. S.

Garofalo

Emerson

E. M.

(2010). Mental health disorders, psychological distress, and suicidality in a diverse sample of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youths. American Journal of Public Health, 100(12), 2426–2432.

31.

O’Brien

(2023). Sharp division over teaching of gender identity and use of pronouns in updated sex education syllabus. The Irish Times. https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/education/2023/02/06/sharp-division-over-teaching-of-gender-identity-in-updated-sex-education-syllabus/

32.

Ofosu

E. K.

Chambers

M. K.

Chen

J. M.

Hehman

(2019). Same-sex marriage legalization associated with reduced implicit and explicit antigay bias. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(18), 8846–8851.

33.

Olson

K. R.

Durwood

DeMeules

McLaughlin

K. A

. (2016). Mental health of transgender children who are supported in their identities. Pediatrics, 137(3). http://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-pdf/137/3/e20153223/932836/peds_20153223.pdf

34.

Perry

S. P.

Skinner

A. L.

Abaied

J. L.

(2019). Bias awareness predicts color conscious racial socialization methods among White parents. Journal of Social Issues, 75(4), 1035–1056.

35.

Phillips

(2022, April 22). Florida’s law limiting LGBTQ discussion in schools, explained. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/04/01/what-is-florida-dont-say-gay-bill/

36.

Platt

L. F.

Lenzen

A. L.

(2013). Sexual orientation microaggressions and the experience of sexual minorities. Journal of Homosexuality, 60(7), 1011–1034.

37.

Puchner

Klein

N. A.

(2011). The right time and place? Middle school language arts teachers talk about not talking about sexual orientation. Equity & Excellence in Education, 44(2), 233–248.

38.

Robinson

K. H.

(2013). Innocence, knowledge and the construction of childhood: The contradictory nature of sexuality and censorship in children’s contemporary lives. Routledge.

39.

Robinson

K. H.

Smith

Davies

(2017). Responsibilities, tensions and ways forward: Parents’ perspectives on children’s sexuality education. Sex Education, 17(3), 333–347.

40.

Ryan

C. L.

(2016). Kissing brides and loving hot vampires: Children’s construction and perpetuation of heteronormativity in elementary school classrooms. Sex Education, 16(1), 77–90.

41.

Salim

S. R.

McConnell

A. A.

Messman-Moore

T. L.

(2020). Bisexual women’s experiences of stigma and verbal sexual coercion: The roles of internalized heterosexism and outness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 44(3), 362–376.

42.

Sawchuk

(2022, April 6). Beyond “Don’t Say Gay”: Other states seek to limit LGBTQ youth, teaching. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/beyond-dont-say-gay-other-states-seek-to-limit-lgbtq-youth-teaching/2022/04

43.

Schwarz

(2023, June 11). Map: Where critical race theory is under attack. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/map-where-critical-race-theory-is-under-attack/2021/06

44.

Simon

(2021). The role of race and ethnicity in parental ethnic-racial socialization: A scoping review of research. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30(1), 182–195.

45.

Smith

L. C.

Shin

R. Q.

(2014). Queer blindfolding: A case study on difference “blindness” toward persons who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. Journal of Homosexuality, 61(7), 940–961.

46.

Smith

M. J.

(2018). “I accept all students”: Tolerance discourse and LGBTQ ally work in US public schools. Equity & Excellence in Education, 51(3–4), 301–315.

47.

Snapp

S. D.

McGuire

J. K.

Sinclair

K. O.

Gabrion

Russell

S. T.

(2015). LGBTQ-inclusive curricula: Why supportive curricula matter. Sex Education, 15(6), 580–596.

48.

Stotzer

R. L.

(2009). Straight allies: Supportive attitudes toward lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals in a college sample. Sex Roles, 60, 67–80.

49.

Sullivan

Wilton

Apfelbaum

E. P.

(2021). Adults delay conversations about race because they underestimate children’s processing of race. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 150(2), 395.

50.

Tankard

M. E.

Paluck

E. L.

(2017). The effect of a Supreme Court decision regarding gay marriage on social norms and personal attitudes. Psychological Science, 28(9), 1334–1344.

51.

Todd

A. R.

Galinsky

A. D.

(2012). The reciprocal link between multiculturalism and perspective-taking: How ideological and self-regulatory approaches to managing diversity reinforce each other. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1394–1398.

52.

Toomey

R. B.

McGuire

J. K.

Russell

S. T.

(2012). Heteronormativity, school climates, and perceived safety for gender nonconforming peers. Journal of Adolescence, 35(1), 187–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.03.001

53.

Tyler

Jackson

(2014). Popular legitimacy and the exercise of legal authority: Motivating compliance, cooperation, and engagement. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 20, 78–95.

54.

Ward

Schneider

(2009). The reaches of heteronormativity: An introduction. Gender & Society, 23(4), 433–439.

55.

Whitley

B. E.

Jr. Luttrell

Schultz

(2022). The measurement of racial colorblindness. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 49(11), 1531–1551.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.56 MB