Despite widespread concern, research on the consequences of misinformation on people's attitudes is surprisingly scant. To fill in this gap, the current study examines the long-term relationship between misinformation and trust in the news media. Based on the reinforcing spirals model, we analyzed data from a three-wave panel survey collected in Chile between 2017 and 2019. We found a weak, over-time relationship between misinformation and media skepticism. Specifically, initial beliefs on factually dubious information were negatively correlated with subsequent levels of trust in the news media. Lower trust in the media, in turn, was related over time to higher levels of misinformation. However, we found no evidence of a reverse, parallel process where media trust shielded users against misinformation, further reinforcing trust in the news media. The lack of evidence of a downward spiral suggests that the corrosive effects of misinformation on attitudes toward the news media are less serious than originally suggested. We close with a discussion of directions for future research.
AbdullaRasha A.GarrisonBruceSalwenMichael B.DriscollPaul D.CaseyDenise. 2005. “Online News Credibility.” In Online News and the Public, eds. SalwenMichael B.GarrisonBruceDriscollPaul D., 148–63. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
2.
AllcottHuntGentzkowMatthew. 2017. “Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election.” Journal of Economic Perspectives31: 211–36. 10.1257/jep.31.2.211.
3.
AllenJenniferHowlandBairdMobiusMarkusRothschildDavidWattsDuncan J.. 2020. “Evaluating the Fake News Problem at the Scale of the Information Ecosystem.” Science Advances6: eaay3539. 10.1126/sciadv.aay3539.
4.
BeamMichael A.HutchensMyiah J.HmielowskiJay D.. 2018. “Facebook News and (De)polarization: Reinforcing Spirals in The 2016 US Election.” Information, Communication & Society21: 940–58. 10.1080/1369118X.2018.1444783.
5.
BessiAlessandro. 2016. “Personality Traits and Echo Chambers on Facebook.” Computers in Human Behavior65: 319–24.10.1016/j.chb.2016.08.016
6.
BodeLeticiaVragaEmily K.. 2015. “In Related News, That Was Wrong: The Correction of Misinformation Through Related Stories Functionality in Social Media.” Journal of Communication65: 619–38. 10.1111/jcom.12166.
7.
ClaytonKatherineDavisJaseHinckleyKristenHoriuchiYusaku. 2019. “Partisan Motivated Reasoning and Misinformation in the Media: Is News from Ideologically Uncongenial Sources More Suspicious?” Japanese Journal of Political Science20 (3): 129–42. 10.1017/S1468109919000082.
8.
DahlgrenPeter M.ShehataAdamStrömbäckJesper. 2019. “Reinforcing Spirals at Work? Mutual Influences Between Selective News Exposure and Ideological Leaning.” European Journal of Communication34 (2): 159–74. 10.1177/0267323119830056.
9.
Del VicarioMichelaVivaldoGiannaBessiAlessandroZolloFabianaScalaAntonioCaldarelliGuidoQuattrociocchiWalter. 2016. “Echo Chambers: Emotional Contagion and Group Polarization on Facebook.” Scientific Reports6: 37825. 10.1038/srep37825.
10.
EchterhofGeraldGrollStephanHirstWilliam. 2007. “Tainted Truth: Overcorrection for Misinformation Influence on Eyewitness Memory.” Social Cognition25: 367–409. 10.1521/soco.2007.25.3.367.
11.
FábregaJorgeGonzálezJorgeLindhJaime. 2018. “Polarization and Electoral Incentives: The End of the Chilean Consensus Democracy, 1990–2014.” Latin American Politics and Society60 (4): 49–68. 10.1017/lap.2018.41.
12.
FawziNayla. 2019. “Untrustworthy News and the Media as ‘Enemy of The People?’ How A Populist Worldview Shapes Recipients’ Attitudes Toward the Media.” The International Journal of Press/Politics24: 146–64. 10.1177/1940161218811981.
13.
FisherCaroline. 2018. “What is Meant by ‘Trust’ in News Media?” In Trust in Media and Journalism, eds. OttoK.KöhlerA., 19–38. Wiesbaden: Springer.
14.
FletcherRichardParkSora. 2017. “The Impact of Trust in the News Media on Online News Consumption and Participation.” Digital Journalism5: 1281–99. 10.1080/21670811.2017.1279979.
15.
GastilJohnMarriottRobert. 2019. “How Communicating Misleading Information Dilutes Public Understanding of Weight Loss Mechanisms.” Health Communication34: 1524–32.10.1080/10410236.2018.1504656
16.
GronemeyerMaría ElenaLeón-PorathVictoriaPorathWilliam. 2021. “Who Has A Say in Political News? An Analysis of Sourcing Trends in the Chilean Quality Press.” Journalism22 (2): 465–83. 10.1177/1464884918789242.
17.
GuessAndrewLockettDominiqueLyonsBenjaminMontgomeryJacob M.NyhanBrendanReiflerJason. 2020. “‘Fake News’ May Have Limited Effects Beyond Increasing Beliefs in False Claims.” Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review1 (1): 004. 10.37016/mr-2020-004.
GuessAndrewNaglerJonathanTuckerJoshua. 2019. “Less Than You Think: Prevalence and Predictors of Fake News Dissemination on Facebook.” Science Advances5 (1): eaau4586. 10.1126/sciadv.aau4586.
20.
HanitzschThomasVan DalenArjenSteindlNina. 2018. “Caught in the Nexus: A Comparative and Longitudinal Analysis of Public Trust in the Press.” The International Journal of Press/Politics23: 3–23. 10.1177/1940161217740695.
21.
HarlowSummerKilgoDanielle K.SalaverríaRamónGarcía-PerdomoVíctor. 2020. “Is the Whole World Watching? Building a Typology of Protest Coverage on Social Media from Around the World.” Journalism Studies21: 1590–608. 10.1080/1461670X.2020.1776144.
22.
HoltKristofferFigenschouTine UstadFrischlichLena. 2019. “Key Dimensions of Alternative News Media.” Digital Journalism7: 860–9. 10.1080/21670811.2019.1625715.
23.
HopmannDavid N.ShehataAdamStrömbäckJesper. 2015. “Contagious Media Effects: How Media Use and Exposure to Game-Framed News Influence Media Trust.” Mass Communication and Society18: 776–98. 10.1080/15205436.2015.1022190.
24.
HumprechtEddaEsserFrankVan AelstPeter. 2020. “Resilience to Online Disinformation: A Framework for Cross-National Comparative Research.” The International Journal of Press/Politics25: 493–516.10.1177/1940161219900126
25.
Jones-JangS. MoKimDam H.KenskiKate. 2020. “Perceptions of Mis- or Disinformation Exposure Predict Political Cynicism: Evidence from a Two-Wave Survey During the 2018 US Midterm Elections.” New Media & Society. Epub ahead of print 20 July.10.1177/1461444820943878.
26.
KruikemeierSanneShehataAdam. 2017. “News Media Use and Political Engagement Among Adolescents: An Analysis of Virtuous Circles Using Panel Data.” Political Communication34: 221–42. 10.1080/10584609.2016.1174760.
27.
KundaZiva. 1990. “The Case for Motivated Reasoning.” Psychological Bulletin108: 480–98. 10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480.
28.
LaddJonathan M. 2012. Why Americans Hate the News Media and How it Matters. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
29.
LischkaJuliane A. 2019. “A Badge of Honor? How The New York Times Discredits President Trump’s Fake News Accusations.” Journalism Studies20: 287–304. 10.1080/1461670X.2017.1375385.
30.
LongJacob A.EvelandWilliam P.Jr.SlaterMichael D.. 2019. “Partisan Media Selectivity and Partisan Identity Threat: The Role of Social and Geographic Context.” Mass Communication and Society22 (2): 145–70. 10.1080/15205436.2018.1504302.
NaviaPatricioOsorioRodrigo. 2015. “El Mercurio Lies, and La Tercera Lies More. Political Bias in Newspaper Headlines in Chile, 1994–2010.” Bulletin of Latin American Research34: 467–85. 10.1111/blar.12364.
34.
NelsonJacob L.TanejaHarsh. 2018. “The Small, Disloyal Fake News Audience: The Role of Audience Availability in Fake News Consumption.” New Media & Society20: 3720–37. 10.1177/1461444818758715.
35.
NewmanNicFletcherRichardKalogeropoulosAntonisNielsenRasmus K.. 2019. Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2019. Oxford: Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. http://www.digitalnewsreport.org/survey/2019/.
36.
OgnyanovaKatherine. 2019. “The Social Context of Media Trust: A Network Influence Model.” Journal of Communication69: 539–62. 10.1093/joc/jqz031.
37.
OgnyanovaKatherineLazerDavidRobertsonRonald E.WilsonChristo. 2020. “Misinformation in Action: Fake News Exposure is Linked to Lower Trust in Media, Higher Trust in Government When Your Side is in Power.” Harvard Kennedy School (HSK) Misinformation Review1 (4): 024. 10.37016/mr-2020-024.
38.
PennycookGordonRandDavid G.. 2019. “Lazy, Not Biased: Susceptibility to Partisan Fake News is Better Explained by Lack of Reasoning Than by Motivated Reasoning.” Cognition188: 39–50. 10.1016/j.cognition.2018.06.011.
39.
RobertsonCraig T.MourãoRachel R.. 2020. “Faking Alternative Journalism? An Analysis of Self-Presentations of ‘Fake News’ Sites.” Digital Journalism8: 1011–29. 10.1080/21670811.2020.1743193
40.
ScharkowMichaelBachlMarko. 2019. “Stable Attitudes and Behaviors as Boundary Conditions of Reinforcing Spirals Models.” In Dynamic Processes of Public Communication: Methodological Challenges, eds. MüllerPhilippGeissStefanSchemerChristianNaabTeresa K.PeterChristina, 1–12. Cologne: Herbert von Halem.
41.
SchemerChristian. 2012. “Reinforcing Spirals of Negative Affects and Selective Attention to Advertising in a Political Campaign.” Communication Research39: 413–34. 10.1177/0093650211427141.
42.
SlaterMichael D.ShehataAdamStrömbäckJesper. 2020. “Reinforcing Spirals Model.” In The International Encyclopedia of Media Psychology, eds. Van den BulckJ.EwoldsenD.MaresM.-L.ScharrerE.. Vol. 3, 1–11. New York: Wiley.
43.
SouthwellBrian G.ThorsonEmily A.ShebleLaura. 2018. “Introduction: Misinformation among Mass Audiences as a Focus for Inquiry.” In Misinformation and Mass Audiences, eds. SouthwellB. G.ThorsonE. A.ShebleL., 1–11. Austin: University of Texas Press.
44.
StrömbäckJesperTsfatiYarivBoomgaardenHajoDamstraAlytLindgrenElinaVliegenthartRensLindholmTorun. 2020. “News Media Trust and its Impact on Media Use: Toward a Framework for Future Research.” Annals of the International Communication Association44 (2): 139–56. 10.1080/23808985.2020.1755338.
45.
TandocEdson C.Jr.LingRichardWestlundOscarDuffyAndrewGohDebbieWeiLim Zheng. 2018. “Audiences’ Acts of Authentication in the Age of Fake News: A Conceptual Framework.” New Media & Society20: 2745–63. 10.1177/1461444817731756.
46.
TsfatiYarivArielyGal. 2014. “Individual and Contextual Correlates of Trust in Media across 44 Countries.” Communication Research41: 760–82. 10.1177/0093650213485972.
47.
TsfatiYarivBoomgaardenHajo G.StrömbäckJesperVliegenthartRensDamstraAlytLindgrenElina. 2020. “Causes and Consequences of Mainstream Media Dissemination of Fake News: Literature Review and Synthesis.” Annals of the International Communication Association44 (2): 157–73. 10.1080/23808985.2020.1759443.
48.
TsfatiYarivCohenJonathan. 2005. “Democratic Consequences of Hostile Media Perceptions: The Case of Gaza Settlers.” Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics10: 28–51. 10.1177/1081180X05280776.
49.
VaccariCristianChadwickAndrew. 2020. “Deepfakes and Disinformation: Exploring the Impact of Synthetic Political Video on Deception, Uncertainty, and Trust in News.” Social Media+Society6 (1): 1–13. 10.1177/2056305120903408.
50.
ValenzuelaSebastiánHalpernDanielKatzJames E.MirandaJuan P.. 2019. “The Paradox of Participation Versus Misinformation: Social Media, Political Engagement, and the Spread of Misinformation.” Digital Journalism7: 802–23. 10.1080/21670811.2019.1623701.
51.
Van DuynEmilyCollierJessica. 2019. “Priming and Fake News: The Effects of Elite Discourse on Evaluations of News Media.” Mass Communication and Society22: 29–48. 10.1080/15205436.2018.1511807.
52.
von BülowMarisaDonosoSofía. 2017. “Introduction: Social Movements in Contemporary Chile.” In Social Movements in Chile, eds. DonosoSofíavon BülowMarisa, 3–28. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1057/978-1-137-60013-4_1.
53.
VosoughiSoroushRoyDebAralSinan. 2018. “The Spread of True and False News Online.” Science359 (6380): 1146–51. 10.1126/science.aap9559.
54.
WaisbordSilvio. 2018. “The Elective Affinity Between Post-Truth Communication and Populist Politics.” Communication Research and Practice4: 17–34. 10.1080/22041451.2018.1428928.
55.
WassermanHermanMadrid-MoralesDani. 2019. “An Exploratory Study of ‘Fake News’ and Media Trust in Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa.” African Journalism Studies40:107–23. 10.1080/23743670.2019.1627230.
56.
WeeksBrian E.Gil de ZúñigaHomero. 2021. “What’s Next? Six Observations for the Future of Political Misinformation Research.” American Behavioral Scientist65: 277–89. 10.1177/0002764219878236.
57.
WestMark D. 1994. “Validating a Scale for the Measurement of Credibility: A Covariance Structure Modeling Approach.” Journalism Quarterly71: 159–68. 10.1177/107769909407100115.
58.
WittenbergCloeBerinskyAdam J.. 2020. “Misinformation and Its Correction.” In Social Media and Democracy: The State of the Field, Prospects for Reform, eds. PersilyN.TuckerJ. A., 163–98. New York: Cambridge University Press.
59.
WojcieszakMagdalenaBimberBruceFeldmanLaurenStroudNatalie Jomini. 2016. “Partisan News and Political Participation: Exploring Mediated Relationships.” Political Communication33: 241–60. 10.1080/10584609.2015.1051608.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
