Cartilage repair is a common problem in the clinic. Owing to the absence of vascular and lymphatic systems, cartilage exhibits a very limited capacity for self-repair, which complicates related research. The decellularized extracellular matrix (dECM), obtained by removing cellular components, preserves the natural structure and bioactive molecules of native ECM. This offers a biocompatible and bioactive environment for cell growth, making it a suitable and effective biomimetic scaffold material. In recent years, many studies have shown that the dECM has good effects on cartilage regeneration. However, there are no studies on the cartilage regeneration of decellularized matrix from different tissue sources, especially the related mechanisms. This article reviews the preparation methods for dECM and research on decellularized matrix derived from cartilage, fat, synovium, and dermis with respect to cartilage repair and regeneration, and further explores the application value and broad prospects of acellular ECM as a new tissue engineering biomimetic scaffold material. With further progress in dECM research and 3D bioprinting, their combination can better replicate native tissue architecture and function. This approach enables precise control of cells and materials, improves the regenerative niche, and may speed the clinical translation of biomimetic ECM for tissue repair.
Impact Statement
In this review, we systematically compared dECM for cartilage repair from various tissues and proposed a more targeted breakthrough direction for cartilage repair treatment by clarifying how component differences (collagen, glycosaminoglycan [GAG], growth factors) affect regeneration, which can accelerate the clinical transformation of dECM-based treatment. More importantly, it positions the integration of dECM-3D bioprinting as a new construction method of biomimetic ECM for tissue engineering, which will become a new mode of cartilage tissue engineering.
KuhlmannC, SchenckTL, AszodiA, et al.Zone-dependent architecture and biochemical composition of decellularized porcine nasal cartilage modulate the activity of adipose tissue-derived stem cells in cartilage regeneration. Int J Mol Sci, 2021; 22(18):9917; doi: 10.3390/ijms22189917
2.
WangM, YuL. Transplantation of adipose-derived stem cells combined with decellularized cartilage ECM: A novel approach to nasal septum perforation repair. Med Hypotheses, 2014; 82(6):781–783; doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2014.03.025
3.
RosadiI, KarinaK, RoslianaI, et al.In vitro study of cartilage tissue engineering using human adipose-derived stem cells induced by platelet-rich plasma and cultured on silk fibroin scaffold. Stem Cell Res Ther, 2019; 10(1):369; doi: 10.1186/s13287-019-1443-2
4.
RaabeO, ReichC, WenischS, et al.Hydrolyzed fish collagen induced chondrogenic differentiation of equine adipose tissue-derived stromal cells. Histochem Cell Biol, 2010; 134(6):545–554; doi: 10.1007/s00418-010-0760-4
5.
ShangY, WangG, ZhenY, et al.Application of decellularization-recellularization technique in plastic and reconstructive surgery. Chin Med J (Engl), 2023; 136(17):2017–2027; doi: 10.1097/CM9.0000000000002085
6.
JiaL, HuaY, ZengJ, et al.Bioprinting and regeneration of auricular cartilage using a bioactive bioink based on microporous photocrosslinkable acellular cartilage matrix. Bioact Mater, 2022; 16:66–81; doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2022.02.032
7.
KeaneTJ, SwinehartIT, BadylakSF. Methods of tissue decellularization used for preparation of biologic scaffolds and in vivo relevance. Methods, 2015; 84:25–34; doi: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2015.03.005
8.
LiQ, YuH, ZhaoF, et al.3D printing of microenvironment‐specific bioinspired and exosome‐reinforced hydrogel scaffolds for efficient cartilage and subchondral bone regeneration. Adv Sci (Weinh), 2023; 10(26):e2303650; doi: 10.1002/advs.202303650
9.
ZhouJ, WuN, ZengJ, et al.Chondrogenic differentiation of adipose-derived stromal cells induced by decellularized cartilage matrix/silk fibroin secondary crosslinking hydrogel scaffolds with a three-dimensional microstructure. Polymers (Basel), 2023; 15(8):1868; doi: 10.3390/polym15081868
10.
YanJ, XuY. [Preparation and application of decellularized extracellular matrix bioink: A review]. Sheng Wu Gong Cheng Xue Bao, 2021; 37(11):4024–4035; doi: 10.13345/j.cjb.210091
11.
KabirianF, MozafariM. Decellularized ECM-derived bioinks: Prospects for the future. Methods, 2020; 171:108–118; doi: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2019.04.019
12.
ChenY-W, LinY-H, LinT-L, et al.3D-biofabricated chondrocyte-laden decellularized extracellular matrix-contained gelatin methacrylate auxetic scaffolds under cyclic tensile stimulation for cartilage regeneration. Biofabrication, 2023; 15(4); doi: 10.1088/1758-5090/ace5e1
13.
ChengCW, SolorioLD, AlsbergE. Decellularized tissue and cell-derived extracellular matrices as scaffolds for orthopaedic tissue engineering. Biotechnol Adv, 2014; 32(2):462–484; doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2013.12.012
14.
NonakaPN, CampilloN, UriarteJJ, et al.Effects of freezing/thawing on the mechanical properties of decellularized lungs. J Biomed Mater Res A, 2014; 102(2):413–419; doi: 10.1002/jbm.a.34708
15.
FunamotoS, NamK, KimuraT, et al.The use of high-hydrostatic pressure treatment to decellularize blood vessels. Biomaterials, 2010; 31(13):3590–3595; doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.01.073
16.
HashimotoY, FunamotoS, SasakiS, et al.Preparation and characterization of decellularized cornea using high-hydrostatic pressurization for corneal tissue engineering. Biomaterials, 2010; 31(14):3941–3948; doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.01.122
17.
SeoY, JungY, KimSH. Decellularized heart ECM hydrogel using supercritical carbon dioxide for improved angiogenesis. Acta Biomater, 2018; 67:270–281; doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2017.11.046
18.
KimBS, KimH, GaoG, et al.Decellularized extracellular matrix: A step towards the next generation source for bioink manufacturing. Biofabrication, 2017; 9(3):e034104; doi: 10.1088/1758-5090/aa7e98
19.
DongX, WeiX, YiW, et al.RGD-modified acellular bovine pericardium as a bioprosthetic scaffold for tissue engineering. J Mater Sci Mater Med, 2009; 20(11):2327–2336; doi: 10.1007/s10856-009-3791-4
20.
ReingJE, BrownBN, DalyKA, et al.The effects of processing methods upon mechanical and biologic properties of porcine dermal extracellular matrix scaffolds. Biomaterials, 2010; 31(33):8626–8633; doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.07.083
GilpinA, YangY. Decellularization strategies for regenerative medicine: From processing techniques to applications. Biomed Res Int, 2017; 2017:9831534; doi: 10.1155/2017/9831534
23.
RanaD, ZreiqatH, Benkirane-JesselN, et al.Development of decellularized scaffolds for stem cell-driven tissue engineering. J Tissue Eng Regen Med, 2017; 11(4):942–965; doi: 10.1002/term.2061
24.
ZhangH, WangY, ZhengZ, et al.Strategies for improving the 3D printability of decellularized extracellular matrix bioink. Theranostics, 2023; 13(8):2562–2587; doi: 10.7150/thno.81785
25.
ZhangQ, HuY, LongX, et al.Preparation and application of decellularized ecm-based biological scaffolds for articular cartilage repair: A review. Front Bioeng Biotechnol, 2022; 10:908082; doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.908082
26.
RothSP, GlaucheSM, PlengeA, et al.Automated freeze-thaw cycles for decellularization of tendon tissue—A pilot study. BMC Biotechnol, 2017; 17(1):13; doi: 10.1186/s12896-017-0329-6
27.
GuptaSK, MishraNC, DhasmanaA. Erratum to: Decellularization methods for scaffold fabrication. Methods Mol Biol, 2018; 1577:337; doi: 10.1007/7651_2017_110
28.
Gil-RamírezA, RosmarkO, SpégelP, et al.Pressurized carbon dioxide as a potential tool for decellularization of pulmonary arteries for transplant purposes. Sci Rep, 2020; 10(1):4031; doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-60827-4
29.
RajabTK, O’MalleyTJ, TchantchaleishviliV. Decellularized scaffolds for tissue engineering: Current status and future perspective. Artif Organs, 2020; 44(10):1031–1043; doi: 10.1111/aor.13701
30.
DehghaniS, AghaeeZ, SoleymaniS, et al.An overview of the production of tissue extracellular matrix and decellularization process. Cell Tissue Bank, 2024; 25(1):369–387; doi: 10.1007/s10561-023-10112-1
31.
YangC, GuoJ, WangJ, et al.[Effects of two common acellular methods on the physicochemical properties of dermal acellular matrix]. Sheng Wu Yi Xue Gong Cheng Xue Za Zhi, 2021; 38(5):911–918; doi: 10.7507/1001-5515.202103019
32.
LuoZ, BianY, SuW, et al.Comparison of various reagents for preparing a decellularized porcine cartilage scaffold. Am J Transl Res, 2019; 11(3):1417–1427.
33.
XiaC, MeiS, GuC, et al.Decellularized cartilage as a prospective scaffold for cartilage repair. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl, 2019; 101:588–595; doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2019.04.002
34.
SchneiderC, LehmannJ, van OschGJVM, et al.Systematic comparison of protocols for the preparation of human articular cartilage for use as scaffold material in cartilage tissue engineering. Tissue Eng Part C Methods, 2016; 22(12):1095–1107; doi: 10.1089/ten.TEC.2016.0380
35.
BroweDC, MahonOR, Díaz-PaynoPJ, et al.Glyoxal cross-linking of solubilized extracellular matrix to produce highly porous, elastic, and chondro-permissive scaffolds for orthopedic tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res A, 2019; 107(10):2222–2234; doi: 10.1002/jbm.a.36731
36.
GhassemiT, SaghatoleslamiN, Mahdavi-ShahriN, et al.A comparison study of different decellularization treatments on bovine articular cartilage. J Tissue Eng Regen Med, 2019; 13(10):1861–1871; doi: 10.1002/term.2936
37.
KeshvariMA, AfsharA, DaneshiS, et al.Decellularization of kidney tissue: Comparison of sodium lauryl ether sulfate and sodium dodecyl sulfate for allotransplantation in rat. Cell Tissue Res, 2021; 386(2):365–378; doi: 10.1007/s00441-021-03517-5
KimH, KimY, FendereskiM, et al.Recent advancements in decellularized matrix-based biomaterials for musculoskeletal tissue regeneration. Adv Exp Med Biol, 2018; 1077:149–162; doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-0947-2_9
40.
HeathDE. A review of decellularized extracellular matrix biomaterials for regenerative engineering applications. Regen Eng Transl Med, 2019; 5(2):155–166; doi: 10.1007/s40883-018-0080-0
41.
YinF, CaiJ, ZenW, et al.Cartilage regeneration of adipose-derived stem cells in the TGF-β1-immobilized PLGA-gelatin scaffold. Stem Cell Rev Rep, 2015; 11(3):453–459; doi: 10.1007/s12015-014-9561-9
42.
ZhangY, LeiZ, QiY, et al.Adipose-derived stem cell sheet encapsulated construct of micro-porous decellularized cartilage debris and hydrogel for cartilage defect repair. Med Hypotheses, 2017; 109:111–113; doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2017.10.004
43.
MehlhornAT, ZwingmannJ, FinkenzellerG, et al.Chondrogenesis of adipose-derived adult stem cells in a poly-lactide-co-glycolide scaffold. Tissue Eng Part A, 2009; 15(5):1159–1167; doi: 10.1089/ten.tea.2008.0069
44.
OhSH, KimTH, ImGI, et al.Investigation of pore size effect on chondrogenic differentiation of adipose stem cells using a pore size gradient scaffold. Biomacromolecules, 2010; 11(8):1948–1955; doi: 10.1021/bm100199m
45.
ZhuW, CaoL, SongC, et al.Cell-derived decellularized extracellular matrix scaffolds for articular cartilage repair. Int J Artif Organs, 2021; 44(4):269–281; doi: 10.1177/0391398820953866
46.
LoeserRF. Chondrocyte integrin expression and function. Biorheology, 2000; 37(1–2):109–116.
47.
BrockbankEC, BridgesJ, MarshallCJ, et al.Integrin beta1 is required for the invasive behaviour but not proliferation of squamous cell carcinoma cells in vivo. Br J Cancer, 2005; 92(1):102–112; doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6602255
48.
AplinAE, HoweA, AlahariSK, et al.Signal transduction and signal modulation by cell adhesion receptors: The role of integrins, cadherins, immunoglobulin-cell adhesion molecules, and selectins. Pharmacol Rev, 1998; 50(2):197–263.
49.
SunY, YanL, ChenS, et al.Functionality of decellularized matrix in cartilage regeneration: A comparison of tissue versus cell sources. Acta Biomater, 2018; 74:56–73; doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.04.048
50.
HeF, PeiM. Extracellular matrix enhances differentiation of adipose stem cells from infrapatellar fat pad toward chondrogenesis: ECM enhances adipose stem cells toward chondrogenesis. J Tissue Eng Regen Med, 2013; 7(1):73–84; doi: 10.1002/term.505
51.
PeiM, HeF, KishVL. Expansion on extracellular matrix deposited by human bone marrow stromal cells facilitates stem cell proliferation and tissue-specific lineage potential. Tissue Eng Part A, 2011; 17(23–24):3067–3076; doi: 10.1089/ten.TEA.2011.0158
52.
LaiY, SunY, SkinnerCM, et al.Reconstitution of marrow-derived extracellular matrix ex vivo: A robust culture system for expanding large-scale highly functional human mesenchymal stem cells. Stem Cells Dev, 2010; 19(7):1095–1107; doi: 10.1089/scd.2009.0217
53.
HeF, LiuX, XiongK, et al.Extracellular matrix modulates the biological effects of melatonin in mesenchymal stem cells. J Endocrinol, 2014; 223(2):167–180; doi: 10.1530/JOE-14-0430
54.
SaniM, HosseinieR, LatifiM, et al.Engineered artificial articular cartilage made of decellularized extracellular matrix by mechanical and IGF-1 stimulation. Biomater Adv, 2022; 139:213019; doi: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2022.213019
55.
MahajanA, SinghA, DattaD, et al.Bioinspired injectable hydrogels dynamically stiffen and contract to promote mechanosensing-mediated chondrogenic commitment of stem cells. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2022; 14(6):7531–7550; doi: 10.1021/acsami.1c11840
56.
ZhaoX, TangL, LeTP, et al.Yap and Taz promote osteogenesis and prevent chondrogenesis in neural crest cells in vitro and in vivo. Sci Signal, 2022; 15(757):eabn9009; doi: 10.1126/scisignal.abn9009
57.
DupontS, MorsutL, AragonaM, et al.Role of YAP/TAZ in mechanotransduction. Nature, 2011; 474(7350):179–183; doi: 10.1038/nature10137
58.
SheaCA, RolfeRA, McNeillH, et al.Localization of YAP activity in developing skeletal rudiments is responsive to mechanical stimulation. Dev Dyn, 2020; 249(4):523–542; doi: 10.1002/dvdy.137
59.
FlynnLE. The use of decellularized adipose tissue to provide an inductive microenvironment for the adipogenic differentiation of human adipose-derived stem cells. Biomaterials, 2010; 31(17):4715–4724; doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.02.046
ChoiJS, KimBS, KimJD, et al.In vitro cartilage tissue engineering using adipose-derived extracellular matrix scaffolds seeded with adipose-derived stem cells. Tissue Eng Part A, 2012; 18(1–2):80–92; doi: 10.1089/ten.tea.2011.0103
62.
Moncada-SaucedoNK, Marino-MartínezIA, Lara-AriasJ, et al.A bioactive cartilage graft of IGF1-transduced adipose mesenchymal stem cells embedded in an alginate/bovine cartilage matrix tridimensional scaffold. Stem Cells Int, 2019; 2019:9792369; doi: 10.1155/2019/9792369
63.
YanJ, ChenX, PuC, et al.Synovium stem cell-derived matrix enhances anti-inflammatory properties of rabbit articular chondrocytes via the SIRT1 pathway. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl, 2020; 106:110286; doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2019.110286
64.
ZuG, JiA, ZhouT, et al.Clinicopathological significance of SIRT1 expression in colorectal cancer: A systematic review and meta analysis. Int J Surg, 2016; 26:32–37; doi: 10.1016/j.ijsu.2016.01.002
65.
LiY, YokotaT, GamaV, et al.Bax-inhibiting peptide protects cells from polyglutamine toxicity caused by Ku70 acetylation. Cell Death Differ, 2007; 14(12):2058–2067; doi: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4402219
66.
HanM-K, SongE-K, GuoY, et al.SIRT1 regulates apoptosis and Nanog expression in mouse embryonic stem cells by controlling p53 subcellular localization. Cell Stem Cell, 2008; 2(3):241–251; doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2008.01.002
67.
BrunetA, SweeneyLB, SturgillJF, et al.Stress-dependent regulation of FOXO transcription factors by the SIRT1 deacetylase. Science, 2004; 303(5666):2011–2015; doi: 10.1126/science.1094637
68.
LiuX, ZhouL, ChenX, et al.Culturing on decellularized extracellular matrix enhances antioxidant properties of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl, 2016; 61:437–448; doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2015.12.090
69.
GagarinaV, GabayO, Dvir-GinzbergM, et al.SirT1 enhances survival of human osteoarthritic chondrocytes by repressing protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B and activating the insulin-like growth factor receptor pathway. Arthritis Rheum, 2010; 62(5):1383–1392; doi: 10.1002/art.27369
70.
Bar OzM, KumarA, ElayyanJ, et al.Acetylation reduces SOX9 nuclear entry and ACAN gene transactivation in human chondrocytes. Aging Cell, 2016; 15(3):499–508; doi: 10.1111/acel.12456
71.
OppenheimerH, KumarA, MeirH, et al.Set7/9 impacts COL2A1 expression through binding and repression of SirT1 histone deacetylation. J Bone Miner Res, 2014; 29(2):348–360; doi: 10.1002/jbmr.2052
72.
GuanX-H, LiuX-H, HongX, et al.CD38 deficiency protects the heart from ischemia/reperfusion injury through activating SIRT1/FOXOs-mediated antioxidative stress pathway. Oxid Med Cell Longev, 2016; 2016:7410257; doi: 10.1155/2016/7410257
73.
MatsushitaT, SasakiH, TakayamaK, et al.The overexpression of SIRT1 inhibited osteoarthritic gene expression changes induced by interleukin-1β in human chondrocytes. J Orthop Res, 2013; 31(4):531–537; doi: 10.1002/jor.22268
74.
WangY, XuY, ZhouG, et al.Biological evaluation of acellular cartilaginous and dermal matrixes as tissue engineering scaffolds for cartilage regeneration. Front Cell Dev Biol, 2020; 8:624337; doi: 10.3389/fcell.2020.624337
75.
XingH, LeeH, LuoL, et al.Extracellular matrix-derived biomaterials in engineering cell function. Biotechnol Adv, 2020; 42:107421; doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2019.107421
76.
RavindranS, KotechaM, HuangC-C, et al.Biological and MRI characterization of biomimetic ECM scaffolds for cartilage tissue regeneration. Biomaterials, 2015; 71:58–70; doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.08.030
77.
Del BakhshayeshAR, AsadiN, AlihemmatiA, et al.An overview of advanced biocompatible and biomimetic materials for creation of replacement structures in the musculoskeletal systems: Focusing on cartilage tissue engineering. J Biol Eng, 2019; 13(1):85; doi: 10.1186/s13036-019-0209-9
78.
BrownM, LiJ, MoraesC, et al.Decellularized extracellular matrix: New promising and challenging biomaterials for regenerative medicine. Biomaterials, 2022; 289:121786; doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2022.121786
79.
CaiZ, TangY, WeiY, et al.Double—network hydrogel based on exopolysaccharides as a biomimetic extracellular matrix to augment articular cartilage regeneration. Acta Biomater, 2022; 152:124–143; doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.08.062
80.
SreekumaranS, RadhakrishnanA, RaufAA, et al.Nanohydroxyapatite incorporated photocrosslinked gelatin methacryloyl/poly(ethylene glycol)diacrylate hydrogel for bone tissue engineering. Prog Biomater, 2021; 10(1):43–51; doi: 10.1007/s40204-021-00150-x
81.
LiG, GaoF, YangD, et al.ECM-mimicking composite hydrogel for accelerated vascularized bone regeneration. Bioact Mater, 2024; 42:241–256; doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2024.08.035
82.
ThantL, KakuM, KakiharaY, et al.Extracellular matrix-oriented proteomic analysis of periodontal ligament under mechanical stress. Front Physiol, 2022; 13:899699; doi: 10.3389/fphys.2022.899699
83.
ChengK, ZhuY, WangD, et al.Biomimetic synthesis of chondroitin sulfate-analogue hydrogels for regulating osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl, 2020; 117:111368; doi: 10.1016/j.msec.2020.111368
84.
DhawanA, KennedyPM, RizkEB, et al.Three-dimensional Bioprinting for Bone and Cartilage Restoration in Orthopaedic Surgery. J Am Acad Orthop Surg, 2019; 27(5):e215–e226; doi: 10.5435/JAAOS-D-17-00632
85.
SellaroTL, RanadeA, FaulkDM, et al.Maintenance of human hepatocyte function in vitro by liver-derived extracellular matrix gels. Tissue Eng Part A, 2010; 16(3):1075–1082; doi: 10.1089/ten.TEA.2008.0587
86.
PatiF, ChoD-W. Bioprinting of 3D tissue models using decellularized extracellular matrix bioink. Methods Mol Biol, 2017; 1612:381–390; doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7021-6_27
87.
LinX, ChenJ, QiuP, et al.Biphasic hierarchical extracellular matrix scaffold for osteochondral defect regeneration. Osteoarthritis Cartilage, 2018; 26(3):433–444; doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2017.12.001
88.
CunniffeGM, Díaz-PaynoPJ, SheehyEJ, et al.Tissue-specific extracellular matrix scaffolds for the regeneration of spatially complex musculoskeletal tissues. Biomaterials, 2019; 188:63–73; doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.09.044
89.
KorpayevS, KaygusuzG, ŞenM, et al.Chitosan/collagen based biomimetic osteochondral tissue constructs: A growth factor-free approach. Int J Biol Macromol, 2020; 156:681–690; doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.04.109
90.
ShenY, XuY, YiB, et al.Engineering a highly biomimetic chitosan-based cartilage scaffold by using short fibers and a cartilage-decellularized matrix. Biomacromolecules, 2021; 22(5):2284–2297; doi: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c00366
91.
Olate-MoyaF, Rubí-SansG, EngelE, et al.3D bioprinting of biomimetic alginate/gelatin/chondroitin sulfate hydrogel nanocomposites for intrinsically chondrogenic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells. Biomacromolecules, 2024; 25(6):3312–3324; doi: 10.1021/acs.biomac.3c01444
92.
DingZZ, MaJ, HeW, et al.Simulation of ECM with silk and chitosan nanocomposite materials. J Mater Chem B, 2017; 5(24):4789–4796; doi: 10.1039/C7TB00486A
93.
LeeS, ChoiJ, YounJ, et al.Development and evaluation of gellan gum/silk fibroin/chondroitin sulfate ternary injectable hydrogel for cartilage tissue engineering. Biomolecules, 2021; 11(8):1184; doi: 10.3390/biom11081184
94.
DixitA, MahajanA, SaxenaR, et al.Engineering sulfated polysaccharides and silk fibroin based injectable IPN hydrogels with stiffening and growth factor presentation abilities for cartilage tissue engineering. Biomater Sci, 2024; 12(8):2067–2085; doi: 10.1039/D3BM01466E
95.
CuiP, PanP, QinL, et al.Nanoengineered hydrogels as 3D biomimetic extracellular matrix with injectable and sustained delivery capability for cartilage regeneration. Bioact Mater, 2023; 19:487–498; doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2022.03.032
XieX, WuS, MouS, et al.Microtissue‐based bioink as a chondrocyte microshelter for DLP bioprinting. Adv Healthcare Materials, 2022; 11(22):2201877; doi: 10.1002/adhm.202201877
98.
De MeloBAG, JodatYA, MehrotraS, et al.3D printed cartilage‐like tissue constructs with spatially controlled mechanical properties. Adv Funct Mater, 2019; 29(51):1906330; doi: 10.1002/adfm.201906330
99.
MokhtariniaK, MasaeliE. Post-decellularized printing of cartilage extracellular matrix: Distinction between biomaterial ink and bioink. Biomater Sci, 2023; 11(7):2317–2329; doi: 10.1039/d2bm02111k
100.
DzoboK, MotaungKSCM, AdesidaA. Recent trends in decellularized extracellular matrix bioinks for 3D printing: An updated review. Int J Mol Sci, 2019; 20(18):4628; doi: 10.3390/ijms20184628
101.
WangX, LuY, WangW, et al.Effect of different aged cartilage ECM on chondrogenesis of BMSCs in vitro and in vivo. Regen Biomater, 2020; 7(6):583–595; doi: 10.1093/rb/rbaa028
102.
CaoH, WangX, ChenM, et al.Childhood cartilage ECM enhances the chondrogenesis of endogenous cells and subchondral bone repair of the unidirectional collagen-dECM scaffolds in combination with microfracture. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2021; 13(48):57043–57057; doi: 10.1021/acsami.1c19447
103.
BorrelliC, BuckleyCT. Injectable disc-derived ECM hydrogel functionalised with chondroitin sulfate for intervertebral disc regeneration. Acta Biomater, 2020; 117:142–155; doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.10.002
104.
WangY, YuanX, YuK, et al.Fabrication of nanofibrous microcarriers mimicking extracellular matrix for functional microtissue formation and cartilage regeneration. Biomaterials, 2018; 183:171–172; doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.04.033
105.
ZhangY, YinP, HuangJ, et al.Scalable and high-throughput production of an injectable platelet-rich plasma (PRP)/cell-laden microcarrier/hydrogel composite system for hair follicle tissue engineering. J Nanobiotechnology, 2022; 20(1):465; doi: 10.1186/s12951-022-01671-8
106.
Serna-MárquezN, Rodríguez-HernándezA, Ayala-ReyesM, et al.Fibrillar Collagen Type I Participates in the Survival and Aggregation of Primary Hepatocytes Cultured on Soft Hydrogels. Biomimetics (Basel), 2020; 5(2):30; doi: 10.3390/biomimetics5020030
107.
QuY, HeS, LuoS, et al.Photocrosslinkable, Injectable Locust Bean Gum Hydrogel Induces Chondrogenic Differentiation of Stem Cells for Cartilage Regeneration. Adv Healthcare Materials, 2023; 12(18):2203079; doi: 10.1002/adhm.202203079
108.
LiuY, LiuX, ZhangY, et al.Interpenetrating Polymer Network HA/Alg-RGD Hydrogel: An Equilibrium of Macroscopic Stability and Microscopic Adaptability for 3D Cell Growth and Vascularization. Biomacromolecules, 2023; 24(12):5977–5988; doi: 10.1021/acs.biomac.3c01022
109.
WangQ, LiX, WangP, et al.Bionic composite hydrogel with a hybrid covalent/noncovalent network promoting phenotypic maintenance of hyaline cartilage. J Mater Chem B, 2020; 8(20):4402–4411; doi: 10.1039/D0TB00253D
110.
LiZ, WuN, ChengJ, et al.Biomechanically, structurally and functionally meticulously tailored polycaprolactone/silk fibroin scaffold for meniscus regeneration. Theranostics, 2020; 10(11):5090–5106; doi: 10.7150/thno.44270
111.
ZhaoZ, XiaX, LiuJ, et al.Cartilage-inspired self-assembly glycopeptide hydrogels for cartilage regeneration via ROS scavenging. Bioact Mater, 2024; 32:319–332; doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.10.013
112.
LiuQ, WangJ, ChenY, et al.Suppressing mesenchymal stem cell hypertrophy and endochondral ossification in 3D cartilage regeneration with nanofibrous poly(l-lactic acid) scaffold and matrilin-3. Acta Biomater, 2018; 76:29–38; doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.06.027
113.
QiC, LiuJ, JinY, et al.Photo-crosslinkable, injectable sericin hydrogel as 3D biomimetic extracellular matrix for minimally invasive repairing cartilage. Biomaterials, 2018; 163:89–104; doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.02.016
114.
ÖztürkE, StauberT, LevinsonC, et al.Tyrosinase-crosslinked, tissue adhesive and biomimetic alginate sulfate hydrogels for cartilage repair. Biomed Mater, 2020; 15(4):e045019; doi: 10.1088/1748-605X/ab8318
115.
YangP, XieF, ZhuL, et al.Fabrication of chitin‐fibrin hydrogels to construct the 3D artificial extracellular matrix scaffold for vascular regeneration and cardiac tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res A, 2024; 112(12):2257–2272; doi: 10.1002/jbm.a.37774
116.
KorpayevS, ToprakÖ, KaygusuzG, et al.Regulation of chondrocyte hypertrophy in an osteochondral interface mimicking gel matrix. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces, 2020; 193:111111; doi: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111111
117.
LiuX, RenY, FuS, et al.Toward morphologically relevant extracellular matrix: Nanofiber-hydrogel composites for tumor cell culture. J Mater Chem B, 2024; 12(16):3984–3995; doi: 10.1039/D3TB02575F
118.
ChenZ, BoQ, WangC, et al.Single BMSC-derived cartilage organoids for gradient heterogeneous osteochondral regeneration by leveraging native vascular microenvironment. J Nanobiotechnology, 2025; 23(1):325; doi: 10.1186/s12951-025-03403-0
