Recent advancements in Parkinson’s disease (PD) research have both enriched our pathophysiological understanding and challenged conventional therapeutic dogmas. The emerging application of ectodermal mesenchymal stem cells (EMSCs) derived from the cranial neural crest for neuronal regeneration represents a paradigm-shifting therapeutic modality, diverging fundamentally from traditional dopamine-replacement strategies. However, the fundamental mechanisms responsible for their remarkable neurorestorative potential in PD pathophysiology are still not fully understood. This comprehensive review synthesizes current evidence on the pleiotropic therapeutic capacities of EMSCs, focusing on their ectoderm-derived molecular signatures. Central to this review are developmental insights into nasal mucosa-derived EMSCs, particularly their Nestin+ identity, elevated connexin43, niche-specific paracrine activity, and robust dopaminergic differentiation capacity, to guide therapeutic translation for PD. Through systematic interrogation of nasal mucosa-derived EMSC physiology, we aim to establish an evidence-based platform for developing targeted neuroregenerative therapies.
Impact Statement
While ectodermal mesenchymal stem cells (EMSCs) hold therapeutic potential for neurological disorders, current mechanistic comprehension remains incomplete. By elucidating their unique ectoderm-derived molecular characteristic, we demonstrate how EMSCs inherently circumvent the mechanistic limitations of conventional monoaminergic restoration approaches. This synthesis provides a critical framework for advancing translational strategies that bridge stem cell biology with clinically actionable Parkinson’s disease therapies, potentially through the integration of tissue-engineered delivery systems optimized for neural microenvironmental improvement in the future.
ChanHCS, ShanH, DahounT, et al.Advancing drug discovery via artificial intelligence. Trends Pharmacol Sci, 2019; 40(8):592–604; doi: 10.1016/j.tips.2019.06.004
2.
MattsonMP, ArumugamTV. Hallmarks of brain aging: Adaptive and pathological modification by metabolic states. Cell Metab, 2018; 27(6):1176–1199; doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.05.011
3.
ReeveA, SimcoxE, TurnbullD. Ageing and Parkinson’s disease: Why is advancing age the biggest risk factor? Ageing Res Rev, 2014; 14(100):19–30; doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2014.01.004
4.
HunnBH, CraggSJ, BolamJP, et al.Impaired intracellular trafficking defines early Parkinson’s disease. Trends Neurosci, 2015; 38(3):178–188; doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2014.12.009
SoleimaniM, NadriS, SalehiM, et al.Characterization of fibroblast-like cells from the rat olfactory bulb. Int J Dev Biol, 2008; 52(7):979–984; doi: 10.1387/ijdb.082710ms
7.
BooneN, LoriodB, BergonA, et al.Olfactory stem cells, a new cellular model for studying molecular mechanisms underlying familial dysautonomia. PLoS One, 2010; 5(12):e15590; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015590
8.
DelormeB, NivetE, GaillardJ, et al.The human nose harbors a niche of olfactory ectomesenchymal stem cells displaying neurogenic and osteogenic properties. Stem Cells Dev, 2010; 19(6):853–866; doi: 10.1089/scd.2009.0267
9.
Diaz-SolanoD, WittigO, Ayala-GrossoC, et al.Human olfactory mucosa multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells promote survival, proliferation, and differentiation of human hematopoietic cells. Stem Cells Dev, 2012; 21(17):3187–3196; doi: 10.1089/scd.2012.0084
10.
YuQ, LiaoM, SunC, et al.LBO-EMSC hydrogel serves a dual function in spinal cord injury restoration via the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces, 2021; 13(41):48365–48377; doi: 10.1021/acsami.1c12013
11.
ShiW, QueY, LvD, et al.Overexpression of TG2 enhances the differentiation of ectomesenchymal stem cells into neuron-like cells and promotes functional recovery in adult rats following spinal cord injury. Mol Med Rep, 2019; 20(3):2763–2773; doi: 10.3892/mmr.2019.10502
12.
RövekampM, von GlinskiA, VolkensteinS, et al.Olfactory stem cells for the treatment of spinal cord injury-A new pathway to the cure? World Neurosurg, 2022; 161:e408–e416; doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2022.02.019
13.
GeL, LiuK, LiuZ, et al.Co-transplantation of autologous OM-MSCs and OM-OECs: A novel approach for spinal cord injury. Rev Neurosci, 2016; 27(3):259–270; doi: 10.1515/revneuro-2015-0030
14.
SimorghS, AlizadehR, ShabaniR, et al.Olfactory mucosa stem cells delivery via nasal route: A simple way for the treatment of Parkinson disease. Neurotox Res, 2021; 39(3):598–608; doi: 10.1007/s12640-020-00290-1
15.
SimorghS, BagherZ, FarhadiM, et al.Magnetic targeting of human olfactory mucosa stem cells following intranasal administration: A novel approach to Parkinson’s disease treatment. Mol Neurobiol, 2021; 58(8):3835–3847; doi: 10.1007/s12035-021-02392-z
16.
HouL, PavanWJ. Transcriptional and signaling regulation in neural crest stem cell-derived melanocyte development: Do all roads lead to Mitf? Cell Res, 2008; 18(12):1163–1176; doi: 10.1038/cr.2008.303
17.
MartikML, BronnerME. Riding the crest to get a head: Neural crest evolution in vertebrates. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2021; 22(10):616–626; doi: 10.1038/s41583-021-00503-2
GoldbergS, VenkateshA, MartinezJ, et al.The development of the trunk neural crest in the turtle Trachemys scripta. Dev Dyn, 2020; 249(1):125–140; doi: 10.1002/dvdy.119
20.
GansC, NorthcuttRG. Neural crest and the origin of vertebrates: A new head. Science, 1983; 220(4594):268–273; doi: 10.1126/science.220.4594.268
21.
MartikML, GandhiS, UyBR, et al.Evolution of the new head by gradual acquisition of neural crest regulatory circuits. Nature, 2019; 574(7780):675–678; doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1691-4
22.
Glenn NorthcuttR. The new head hypothesis revisited. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol, 2005; 304(4):274–297; doi: 10.1002/jez.b.21063
23.
YuX, OrrCM, ChanHTC, et al.Reducing affinity as a strategy to boost immunomodulatory antibody agonism. Nature, 2023; 614(7948):539–547; doi: 10.1038/s41586-022-05673-2
24.
CorderoDR, BrugmannS, ChuY, et al.Cranial neural crest cells on the move: Their roles in craniofacial development. Am J Med Genet A, 2011; 155A(2):270–279; doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.33702
25.
HutchinsEJ, KunttasE, PiacentinoML, et al.Migration and diversification of the vagal neural crest. Dev Biol, 2018; 444(Suppl 1):S98–S109; doi: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2018.07.004
26.
HeanueTA, PachnisV. Enteric nervous system development and Hirschsprung’s disease: Advances in genetic and stem cell studies. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2007; 8(6):466–479; doi: 10.1038/nrn2137
27.
PhillipsMT, KirbyML, ForbesG. Analysis of cranial neural crest distribution in the developing heart using quail-chick chimeras. Circ Res, 1987; 60(1):27–30; doi: 10.1161/01.res.60.1.27
28.
ChaiY, JiangX, ItoY, et al.Fate of the mammalian cranial neural crest during tooth and mandibular morphogenesis. Development, 2000; 127(8):1671–1679; doi: 10.1242/dev.127.8.1671
29.
MasudaK, HanX, KatoH, et al.Dental Pulp-Derived mesenchymal stem cells for modeling genetic disorders. Int J Mol Sci, 2021; 22(5):2269; doi: 10.3390/ijms22052269
30.
MasudaK, HanX, KatoH, et al.Postnatal human dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) in vitro and in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2000; 97(25):13625–13630; doi: 10.1073/pnas.240309797
31.
MiuraM, GronthosS, ZhaoM, et al.SHED: Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2003; 100(10):5807–5812; doi: 10.1073/pnas.0937635100
32.
SeoBM, MiuraM, GronthosS, et al.Investigation of multipotent postnatal stem cells from human periodontal ligament. Lancet, 2004; 364(9429):149–155; doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16627-0
33.
SonoyamaW, LiuY, YamazaT, et al.Characterization of the apical papilla and its residing stem cells from human immature permanent teeth: A pilot study. J Endod, 2008; 34(2):166–171; doi: 10.1016/j.joen.2007.11.021
34.
DiogoR, KellyRG, ChristiaenL, et al.A new heart for a new head in vertebrate cardiopharyngeal evolution. Nature, 2015; 520(7548):466–473; doi: 10.1038/nature14435
35.
ManzanaresM, NietoMA. A celebration of the new head and an evaluation of the new mouth. Neuron, 2003; 37(6):895–898; doi: 10.1016/s0896-6273(03)00161-2
36.
QinQ, WangT, XuZ, et al.Ectoderm-derived frontal bone mesenchymal stem cells promote traumatic brain injury recovery by alleviating neuroinflammation and glutamate excitotoxicity partially via FGF1. Stem Cell Res Ther, 2022; 13(1):341; doi: 10.1186/s13287-022-03032-6
37.
DengW, ShaoF, HeQ, et al.EMSCs build an All-in-One Niche via Cell-Cell lipid raft assembly for promoted neuronal but suppressed astroglial differentiation of neural stem cells. Adv Mater, 2019; 31(10):e1806861; doi: 10.1002/adma.201806861
XiangW, YinG, LiuH, et al.Arctium lappa L. polysaccharides enhanced the therapeutic effects of nasal ectomesenchymal stem cells against liver fibrosis by inhibiting the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. Int J Biol Macromol, 2024; 261(Pt 1):129670; doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129670
40.
ZhangZ, HeQ, DengW, et al.Nasal ectomesenchymal stem cells: Multi-lineage differentiation and transformation effects on fibrin gels. Biomaterials, 2015; 49:57–67; doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.01.057
41.
GrahamA, ShimeldSM. The origin and evolution of the ectodermal placodes. J Anat, 2013; 222(1):32–40; doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2012.01506.x
42.
ThieryA, BuzziAL, StreitA. Cell fate decisions during the development of the peripheral nervous system in the vertebrate head. Curr Top Dev Biol, 2020; 139:127–167; doi: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2020.04.002
43.
SuzukiJ, OsumiN. Neural crest and placode contributions to olfactory development. Curr Top Dev Biol, 2015; 111:351–374; doi: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2014.11.010
44.
BuckL, AxelR. A novel multigene family may encode odorant receptors: A molecular basis for odor recognition. Cell, 1991; 65(1):175–187; doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(91)90418-x
45.
Schwartz LeveyM, ChikaraishiDM, KauerJS. Characterization of potential precursor populations in the mouse olfactory epithelium using immunocytochemistry and autoradiography. J Neurosci, 1991; 11(11):3556–3564; doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.11-11-03556.1991
46.
DuanD, LuM. Olfactory mucosa: A rich source of cell therapy for central nervous system repair. Rev Neurosci, 2015; 26(3):281–293; doi: 10.1515/revneuro-2014-0065
47.
SchwobJE, JangW, HolbrookEH, et al.Stem and progenitor cells of the mammalian olfactory epithelium: Taking poietic license. J Comp Neurol, 2017; 525(4):1034–1054; doi: 10.1002/cne.24105
48.
GoldsteinBJ, FangH, YoungentobSL, et al.Transplantation of multipotent progenitors from the adult olfactory epithelium. Neuroreport, 1998; 9(7):1611–1617; doi: 10.1097/00001756-199805110-00065
49.
LeungCT, CoulombePA, ReedRR. Contribution of olfactory neural stem cells to tissue maintenance and regeneration. Nat Neurosci, 2007; 10(6):720–726; doi: 10.1038/nn1882
50.
ChenX, FangH, SchwobJE. Multipotency of purified, transplanted globose basal cells in olfactory epithelium. J Comp Neurol, 2004; 469(4):457–474; doi: 10.1002/cne.11031
51.
FéronF, Mackay-SimA, AndrieuJL, et al.Stress induces neurogenesis in non-neuronal cell cultures of adult olfactory epithelium. Neuroscience, 1999; 88(2):571–583; doi: 10.1016/s0306-4522(98)00233-4
52.
TakashimaY, EraT, NakaoK, et al.Neuroepithelial cells supply an initial transient wave of MSC differentiation. Cell, 2007; 129(7):1377–1388; doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2007.04.028
GoldsteinBJ, HareJM, LiebermanS, et al.Adult human nasal mesenchymal stem cells have an unexpected broad anatomic distribution. Int Forum Allergy Rhinol, 2013; 3(7):550–555; doi: 10.1002/alr.21153
55.
LindsaySL, RiddellJS, BarnettSC. Olfactory mucosa for transplant-mediated repair: A complex tissue for a complex injury? Glia, 2010; 58(2):125–134; doi: 10.1002/glia.20917
56.
LanzaDC, DeemsDA, DotyRL, et al.The effect of human olfactory biopsy on olfaction: A preliminary report. Laryngoscope, 1994; 104(7):837–840; doi: 10.1288/00005537-199407000-00010
57.
ShiW, BianL, LvD, et al.Enhanced neural differentiation of neural stem cells by sustained release of Shh from TG2 gene-modified EMSC co-culture in vitro. Amino Acids, 2021; 53(1):11–22; doi: 10.1007/s00726-020-02918-0
58.
LindsaySL, JohnstoneSA, MountfordJC, et al.Human mesenchymal stem cells isolated from olfactory biopsies but not bone enhance CNS myelination in vitro. Glia, 2013; 61(3):368–382; doi: 10.1002/glia.22440
59.
LindsaySL, JohnstoneSA, McGrathMA, et al.Comparative miRNA-Based fingerprinting reveals biological differences in human olfactory mucosa and bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells. Stem Cell Reports, 2016; 6(5):729–742; doi: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2016.03.009
Global, regional, and national burden of Parkinson’s disease, 1990–2016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Neurol, 2018; 17(11):939–953; doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(18)30295-3
64.
Global, regional, and national burden of neurological disorders during 1990–2015: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet Neurol, 2017; 16(11):877–897; doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30299-5
65.
SchiessN, CataldiR, OkunMS, et al.Six action steps to address global disparities in Parkinson disease: A World Health Organization Priority. JAMA Neurol, 2022; 79(9):929–936; doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2022.1783
66.
WangZL, YuanL, LiW, et al.Ferroptosis in Parkinson’s disease: Glia-neuron crosstalk. Trends Mol Med, 2022; 28(4):258–269; doi: 10.1016/j.molmed.2022.02.003
67.
Mahoney-SánchezL, BouchaouiH, AytonS, et al.Ferroptosis and its potential role in the physiopathology of Parkinson’s disease. Prog Neurobiol, 2021; 196:101890; doi: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101890
68.
Halli-TierneyAD, LukerJ, CarrollDG. Parkinson disease. Am Fam Physician, 2020; 102(11):679–691.
69.
JankovicJ. Parkinson’s disease: Clinical features and diagnosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2008; 79(4):368–376; doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2007.131045
70.
DanX, WechterN, GrayS, et al.Olfactory dysfunction in aging and neurodegenerative diseases. Ageing Res Rev, 2021; 70:101416; doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2021.101416
71.
LiR, LuY, ZhangQ, et al.Piperine promotes autophagy flux by P2RX4 activation in SNCA/α-synuclein-induced Parkinson disease model. Autophagy, 2022; 18(3):559–575; doi: 10.1080/15548627.2021.1937897
72.
RanaAQ, AhmedUS, ChaudryZM, et al.Parkinson’s disease: A review of non-motor symptoms. Expert Rev Neurother, 2015; 15(5):549–562; doi: 10.1586/14737175.2015.1038244
73.
WinklerJ, EhretR, BüttnerT, et al.Parkinson’s disease risk score: Moving to a premotor diagnosis. J Neurol, 2011; 258(Suppl 2):S311–S315; doi: 10.1007/s00415-011-5952-x
74.
FasanoA, VisanjiNP, LiuLW, et al.Gastrointestinal dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease. Lancet Neurol, 2015; 14(6):625–639; doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00007-1
HelyMA, MorrisJGL, ReidWGJ, et al.Sydney multicenter study of Parkinson’s disease: Non-L-dopa-responsive problems dominate at 15 years. Mov Disord, 2005; 20(2):190–199; doi: 10.1002/mds.20324
78.
HippMS, KasturiP, HartlFU. The proteostasis network and its decline in ageing. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol, 2019; 20(7):421–435; doi: 10.1038/s41580-019-0101-y
79.
KurtishiA, RosenB, PatilKS, et al.Cellular Proteostasis in neurodegeneration. Mol Neurobiol, 2019; 56(5):3676–3689; doi: 10.1007/s12035-018-1334-z
80.
ParkY, HoangQQ. Combating Parkinson’s disease-associated toxicity by modulating proteostasis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2017; 114(5):803–804; doi: 10.1073/pnas.1620082114
81.
DehayB, BourdenxM, GorryP, et al.Targeting α-synuclein for treatment of Parkinson’s disease: Mechanistic and therapeutic considerations. Lancet Neurol, 2015; 14(8):855–866; doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00006-X
82.
BlesaJ, FoffaniG, DehayB, et al.Motor and non-motor circuit disturbances in early Parkinson disease: Which happens first? Nat Rev Neurosci, 2022; 23(2):115–128; doi: 10.1038/s41583-021-00542-9
83.
CotziasGC, PapavasiliouPS, GelleneR. Modification of Parkinsonism–chronic treatment with L-dopa. N Engl J Med, 1969; 280(7):337–345; doi: 10.1056/NEJM196902132800701
84.
CotziasGC, Van WoertMH, SchifferLM. Aromatic amino acids and modification of parkinsonism. N Engl J Med, 1967; 276(7):374–379; doi: 10.1056/NEJM196702162760703
85.
ChaudhuriKR, SchapiraAHV. Non-motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease: Dopaminergic pathophysiology and treatment. Lancet Neurol, 2009; 8(5):464–474; doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70068-7
BoninaF, PugliaC, RimoliMG, et al.Glycosyl derivatives of dopamine and L-dopa as anti-Parkinson prodrugs: Synthesis, pharmacological activity and in vitro stability studies. J Drug Target, 2003; 11(1):25–36; doi: 10.1080/1061186031000086090
88.
Di LucaDG, ReyesNGD, FoxSH. Newly approved and investigational drugs for motor symptom control in Parkinson’s disease. Drugs, 2022; 82(10):1027–1053; doi: 10.1007/s40265-022-01747-7
TofarisGK. Initiation and progression of α-synuclein pathology in Parkinson’s disease. Cell Mol Life Sci, 2022; 79(4):210; doi: 10.1007/s00018-022-04240-2
92.
BrysM, FanningL, HungS, et al.Randomized phase I clinical trial of anti-α-synuclein antibody BIIB054. Mov Disord, 2019; 34(8):1154–1163; doi: 10.1002/mds.27738
93.
JankovicJ, GoodmanI, SafirsteinB, et al.Safety and tolerability of multiple ascending doses of PRX002/RG7935, an Anti-α-Synuclein monoclonal antibody, in patients with Parkinson disease: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurol, 2018; 75(10):1206–1214; doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.1487
94.
AryalS, SkinnerT, BridgesB, et al.The pathology of Parkinson’s disease and potential benefit of dietary polyphenols. Molecules, 2020; 25(19):4382; doi: 10.3390/molecules25194382
95.
MengX, MunishkinaLA, FinkAL, et al.Molecular mechanisms underlying the flavonoid-induced inhibition of alpha-synuclein fibrillation. Biochemistry, 2009; 48(34):8206–8224; doi: 10.1021/bi900506b
96.
SongQ, PengS, ZhuX. Baicalein protects against MPP(+)/MPTP-induced neurotoxicity by ameliorating oxidative stress in SH-SY5Y cells and mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Neurotoxicology, 2021; 87:188–194; doi: 10.1016/j.neuro.2021.10.003
97.
RuiW, LiS, XiaoH, et al.Baicalein attenuates Neuroinflammation by inhibiting NLRP3/caspase-1/GSDMD pathway in MPTP induced mice model of Parkinson’s disease. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol, 2020; 23(11):762–773; doi: 10.1093/ijnp/pyaa060
ZhuQ, ZhuangX, LuJ. Neuroprotective effects of baicalein in animal models of Parkinson’s disease: A systematic review of experimental studies. Phytomedicine, 2019; 55:302–309; doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2018.09.215
100.
TaiCH. Subthalamic burst firing: A pathophysiological target in Parkinson’s disease. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 2022; 132:410–419; doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.11.044
101.
KoganM, McGuireM, RileyJ. Deep brain stimulation for Parkinson disease. Neurosurg Clin N Am, 2019; 30(2):137–146; doi: 10.1016/j.nec.2019.01.001
102.
OkunMS. Deep-brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med, 2012; 367(16):1529–1538; doi: 10.1056/NEJMct1208070
103.
Vedam-MaiV, van BattumEY, KamphuisW, et al.Deep brain stimulation and the role of astrocytes. Mol Psychiatry, 2012; 17(2):124–131, 115; doi: 10.1038/mp.2011.61
104.
W WichmannT, DeLongMR, GuridiJ, et al.Milestones in research on the pathophysiology of Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord, 2011; 26(6):1032–1041; doi: 10.1002/mds.23695
105.
LeeKH, ChangSY, RobertsDW, et al.Neurotransmitter release from high-frequency stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus. J Neurosurg, 2004; 101(3):511–517; doi: 10.3171/jns.2004.101.3.0511
106.
LeeKH, HittiFL, ChangSY, et al.High frequency stimulation abolishes thalamic network oscillations: An electrophysiological and computational analysis. J Neural Eng, 2011; 8(4):46001; doi: 10.1088/1741-2560/8/4/046001
107.
DaleJ, SchmidtSL, MitchellK, et al.Evoked potentials generated by deep brain stimulation for Parkinson’s disease. Brain Stimul, 2022; 15(5):1040–1047; doi: 10.1016/j.brs.2022.07.048
108.
HoangKB, CassarIR, GrillWM, et al.Biomarkers and stimulation algorithms for adaptive brain stimulation. Front Neurosci, 2017; 11:564; doi: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00564
109.
LozanoAM, LipsmanN, BergmanH, et al.Deep brain stimulation: Current challenges and future directions. Nat Rev Neurol, 2019; 15(3):148–160; doi: 10.1038/s41582-018-0128-2
110.
ParmarM, GrealishS, HenchcliffeC. The future of stem cell therapies for Parkinson disease. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2020; 21(2):103–115; doi: 10.1038/s41583-019-0257-7
111.
HenchcliffeC, SarvaH. Restoring function to dopaminergic neurons: Progress in the development of cell-based therapies for Parkinson’s disease. CNS Drugs, 2020; 34(6):559–577; doi: 10.1007/s40263-020-00727-3
112.
SrivastavaD, DeWittN. In Vivo cellular reprogramming: The next generation. Cell, 2016; 166(6):1386–1396; doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.08.055
113.
WeiZD, ShettyAK. Treating Parkinson’s disease by astrocyte reprogramming: Progress and challenges. Sci Adv, 2021; 7(26):eabg3198; doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abg3198
114.
MorrisSA, DaleyGQ. A blueprint for engineering cell fate: Current technologies to reprogram cell identity. Cell Res, 2013; 23(1):33–48; doi: 10.1038/cr.2013.1
115.
ShengC, ZhengQ, WuJ, et al.Generation of dopaminergic neurons directly from mouse fibroblasts and fibroblast-derived neural progenitors. Cell Res, 2012; 22(4):769–772; doi: 10.1038/cr.2012.32
116.
CaiazzoM, Dell’AnnoMT, DvoretskovaE, et al.Direct generation of functional dopaminergic neurons from mouse and human fibroblasts. Nature, 2011; 476(7359):224–227; doi: 10.1038/nature10284
117.
PfistererU, KirkebyA, TorperO, et al.Direct conversion of human fibroblasts to dopaminergic neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2011; 108(25):10343–10348; doi: 10.1073/pnas.1105135108
118.
WernigM, ZhaoJP, PruszakJ, et al.Neurons derived from reprogrammed fibroblasts functionally integrate into the fetal brain and improve symptoms of rats with Parkinson’s disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2008; 105(15):5856–5861; doi: 10.1073/pnas.0801677105
119.
AndrzejewskaA, DabrowskaS, LukomskaB, et al.Mesenchymal stem cells for neurological disorders. Adv Sci (Weinh), 2021; 8(7):2002944; doi: 10.1002/advs.202002944
120.
BouchezG, SensebéL, Vourc’hP, et al.Partial recovery of dopaminergic pathway after graft of adult mesenchymal stem cells in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Neurochem Int, 2008; 52(7):1332–1342; doi: 10.1016/j.neuint.2008.02.003
121.
CucariánJD, BerríoJP, RodriguesC, et al.Physical exercise and human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells ameliorate motor disturbances in a male rat model of Parkinson’s disease. J Neurosci Res, 2019; 97(9):1095–1109; doi: 10.1002/jnr.24442
122.
RahbaranM, ZekiyAO, BahramaliM, et al.Therapeutic utility of mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC)-based approaches in chronic neurodegeneration: A glimpse into underlying mechanisms, current status, and prospects. Cell Mol Biol Lett, 2022; 27(1):56; doi: 10.1186/s11658-022-00359-z
123.
PalaszE, WysockaA, GasiorowskaA, et al.BDNF as a promising therapeutic agent in Parkinson’s disease. Int J Mol Sci, 2020; 21(3):1170; doi: 10.3390/ijms21031170
124.
GugliandoloA, MazzonE. Dental mesenchymal stem cell secretome: An intriguing approach for neuroprotection and Neuroregeneration. Int J Mol Sci, 2021; 23(1):456; doi: 10.3390/ijms23010456
125.
GhasemiM, RoshandelE, MohammadianM, et al.Mesenchymal stromal cell-derived secretome-based therapy for neurodegenerative diseases: Overview of clinical trials. Stem Cell Res Ther, 2023; 14(1):122; doi: 10.1186/s13287-023-03264-0
126.
TanseyMG, WallingsRL, HouserMC, et al.Inflammation and immune dysfunction in Parkinson disease. Nat Rev Immunol, 2022; 22(11):657–673; doi: 10.1038/s41577-022-00684-6
127.
ZhouL, WangX, WangX, et al.Neuroprotective effects of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stromal cells in PD mice via centrally and peripherally suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated inflammatory responses. Biomed Pharmacother, 2022; 153:113535; doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113535
128.
ParkHJ, OhSH, KimHN, et al.Mesenchymal stem cells enhance α-synuclein clearance via M2 microglia polarization in experimental and human parkinsonian disorder. Acta Neuropathol, 2016; 132(5):685–701; doi: 10.1007/s00401-016-1605-6
129.
GuillotPV, CuiW, FiskNM, et al.Stem cell differentiation and expansion for clinical applications of tissue engineering. J Cell Mol Med, 2007; 11(5):935–944; doi: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2007.00106.x
130.
WuKH, MoXM, LiuYL, et al.Stem cells for tissue engineering of myocardial constructs. Ageing Res Rev, 2007; 6(4):289–301; doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2007.08.003
MignoneJL, KukekovV, ChiangAS, et al.Neural stem and progenitor cells in nestin-GFP transgenic mice. J Comp Neurol, 2004; 469(3):311–324; doi: 10.1002/cne.10964
133.
BernalA, ArranzL. Nestin-expressing progenitor cells: Function, identity and therapeutic implications. Cell Mol Life Sci, 2018; 75(12):2177–2195; doi: 10.1007/s00018-018-2794-z
134.
WieseC, RolletschekA, KaniaG, et al.Nestin expression–a property of multi-lineage progenitor cells? Cell Mol Life Sci, 2004; 61(19–20):2510–2522; doi: 10.1007/s00018-004-4144-6
135.
OnishiS, BabaY, YokoiF, et al.Progenitor cells expressing nestin, a neural crest stem cell marker, differentiate into outer root sheath keratinocytes. Vet Dermatol, 2019; 30(5):365–e107; doi: 10.1111/vde.12771
136.
JohnstoneSA, LileyM, DalbyMJ, et al.Comparison of human olfactory and skeletal MSCs using osteogenic nanotopography to demonstrate bone-specific bioactivity of the surfaces. Acta Biomater, 2015; 13:266–276; doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2014.11.027
137.
ShafieeA, KabiriM, AhmadbeigiN, et al.Nasal septum-derived multipotent progenitors: A potent source for stem cell-based regenerative medicine. Stem Cells Dev, 2011; 20(12):2077–2091; doi: 10.1089/scd.2010.0420
138.
JingJ, WuZ, WangJ, et al.Hedgehog signaling in tissue homeostasis, cancers, and targeted therapies. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2023; 8(1):315; doi: 10.1038/s41392-023-01559-5
139.
LiP, LeeEH, DuF, et al.Nestin mediates hedgehog pathway tumorigenesis. Cancer Res, 2016; 76(18):5573–5583; doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-16-1547
140.
YoshimuraH, MoriyaM, YoshidaA, et al.Involvement of Nestin in the progression of canine mammary carcinoma. Vet Pathol, 2021; 58(5):994–1003; doi: 10.1177/03009858211018656
141.
WangQ, WuH, HuJ, et al.Nestin is required for spindle assembly and cell-cycle progression in glioblastoma cells. Mol Cancer Res, 2021; 19(10):1651–1665; doi: 10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-20-0994
142.
LiJ, WangR, YangL, et al.Knockdown of Nestin inhibits proliferation and migration of colorectal cancer cells. Int J Clin Exp Pathol, 2015; 8(6):6377–6386.
143.
LuD, LiaoY, ZhuSH, et al.Bone-derived Nestin-positive mesenchymal stem cells improve cardiac function via recruiting cardiac endothelial cells after myocardial infarction. Stem Cell Res Ther, 2019; 10(1):127; doi: 10.1186/s13287-019-1217-x
144.
LindsaySL, BarnettSC. Are nestin-positive mesenchymal stromal cells a better source of cells for CNS repair? Neurochem Int, 2017; 106:101–107; doi: 10.1016/j.neuint.2016.08.001
145.
IsernJ, García-GarcíaA, MartínAM, et al.The neural crest is a source of mesenchymal stem cells with specialized hematopoietic stem cell niche function. Elife, 2014; 3:e03696; doi: 10.7554/eLife.03696
146.
DanielSK, SeoYD, PillarisettyVG. The CXCL12-CXCR4/CXCR7 axis as a mechanism of immune resistance in gastrointestinal malignancies. Semin Cancer Biol, 2020; 65:176–188; doi: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2019.12.007
147.
MaiCL, TanZ, XuYN, et al.CXCL12-mediated monocyte transmigration into brain perivascular space leads to neuroinflammation and memory deficit in neuropathic pain. Theranostics, 2021; 11(3):1059–1078; doi: 10.7150/thno.44364
148.
Sánchez-MartínL, EstechaA, SamaniegoR, et al.The chemokine CXCL12 regulates monocyte-macrophage differentiation and RUNX3 expression. Blood, 2011; 117(1):88–97; doi: 10.1182/blood-2009-12-258186
149.
BabazadehS, NassiriSM, SiavashiV, et al.Macrophage polarization by MSC-derived CXCL12 determines tumor growth. Cell Mol Biol Lett, 2021; 26(1):30; doi: 10.1186/s11658-021-00273-w
150.
YuH, ChangQ, SunT, et al.Metabolic reprogramming and polarization of microglia in Parkinson’s disease: Role of inflammasome and iron. Ageing Res Rev, 2023; 90:102032; doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2023.102032
151.
PengS, ChenY, WangR, et al.Z-ligustilide provides a neuroprotective effect by regulating the phenotypic polarization of microglia via activating Nrf2-TrxR axis in the Parkinson’s disease mouse model. Redox Biol, 2024; 76:103324; doi: 10.1016/j.redox.2024.103324
152.
GaoY, ZhaiL, ChenJ, et al.Focused ultrasound-mediated cerium-based nanoreactor against Parkinson’s disease via ROS regulation and microglia polarization. J Control Release, 2024; 368:580–594; doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.03.010
153.
DaiW, ZhanM, GaoY, et al.Brain delivery of fibronectin through bioactive phosphorous dendrimers for Parkinson’s disease treatment via cooperative modulation of microglia. Bioact Mater, 2024; 38:45–54; doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2024.04.005
154.
WangX, HongCG, DuanR, et al.Transplantation of olfactory mucosa mesenchymal stromal cells repairs spinal cord injury by inducing microglial polarization. Spinal Cord, 2024; 62(8):429–439; doi: 10.1038/s41393-024-01004-6
CawseyT, DuflouJ, WeickertCS, et al.Nestin-Positive ependymal cells are increased in the human spinal cord after traumatic central nervous system injury. J Neurotrauma, 2015; 32(18):1393–1402; doi: 10.1089/neu.2014.3575
157.
PushchinaEV, StukanevaME, VaraksinAA. Hydrogen sulfide modulates adult and reparative neurogenesis in the cerebellum of Juvenile Masu Salmon, Oncorhynchus masou. Int J Mol Sci, 2020; 21(24):9638; doi: 10.3390/ijms21249638
158.
AlbrightJE, StojkovskaI, RahmanAA, et al.Nestin-positive/SOX2-negative cells mediate adult neurogenesis of nigral dopaminergic neurons in mice. Neurosci Lett, 2016; 615:50–54; doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2016.01.019
159.
DorshkindK, GreenL, GodwinA, et al.Connexin-43-type gap junctions mediate communication between bone marrow stromal cells. Blood, 1993; 82(1):38–45.
160.
Danesh-MeyerHV, ZhangJ, AcostaML, et al.Connexin43 in retinal injury and disease. Prog Retin Eye Res, 2016; 51:41–68; doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.09.004
161.
CarnariusC, KreirM, KrickM, et al.Green fluorescent protein changes the conductance of connexin 43 (Cx43) hemichannels reconstituted in planar lipid bilayers. J Biol Chem, 2012; 287(4):2877–2886; doi: 10.1074/jbc.M111.319871
162.
AnjoSI, Martins-MarquesT, PereiraP, et al.Elucidation of the dynamic nature of interactome networks: A practical tutorial. J Proteomics, 2018; 171:116–126; doi: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.04.011
163.
Martins-MarquesT, Ribeiro-RodriguesT, Batista-AlmeidaD, et al.Biological functions of Connexin43 beyond intercellular communication. Trends Cell Biol, 2019; 29(10):835–847; doi: 10.1016/j.tcb.2019.07.001
164.
BannermanP, NicholsW, PuhallaS, et al.Early migratory rat neural crest cells express functional gap junctions: Evidence that neural crest cell survival requires gap junction function. J Neurosci Res, 2000; 61(6):605–615; doi: 10.1002/1097-4547(20000915)61:6<605::AID-JNR4>3.0.CO;2-U
165.
HuangGY, CooperES, WaldoK, et al.Gap junction-mediated cell-cell communication modulates mouse neural crest migration. J Cell Biol, 1998; 143(6):1725–1734; doi: 10.1083/jcb.143.6.1725
166.
XuX, LiWE, HuangGY, et al.Modulation of mouse neural crest cell motility by N-cadherin and connexin 43 gap junctions. J Cell Biol, 2001; 154(1):217–230; doi: 10.1083/jcb.200105047
167.
KotiniM, BarrigaEH, LeslieJ, et al.Gap junction protein Connexin-43 is a direct transcriptional regulator of N-cadherin in vivo. Nat Commun, 2018; 9(1):3846; doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-06368-x
168.
OrellanaJA, SáezPJ, ShojiKF, et al.Modulation of brain hemichannels and gap junction channels by pro-inflammatory agents and their possible role in neurodegeneration. Antioxid Redox Signal, 2009; 11(2):369–399; doi: 10.1089/ars.2008.2130
169.
NagyJI, DudekFE, RashJE. Update on connexins and gap junctions in neurons and glia in the mammalian nervous system. Brain Res Brain Res Rev, 2004; 47(1–3):191–215; doi: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.05.005
170.
OrellanaJA, MartinezAD, RetamalMA. Gap junction channels and hemichannels in the CNS: Regulation by signaling molecules. Neuropharmacology, 2013; 75:567–582; doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.02.020
171.
LapatoAS, Tiwari-WoodruffSK. Connexins and pannexins: At the junction of neuro-glial homeostasis & disease. J Neurosci Res, 2018; 96(1):31–44; doi: 10.1002/jnr.24088
172.
BoalAM, RisnerML, CooperML, et al.Astrocyte networks as therapeutic targets in glaucomatous neurodegeneration. Cells, 2021; 10(6):1368; doi: 10.3390/cells10061368
173.
AkopianA, AtlaszT, PanF, et al.Gap junction-mediated death of retinal neurons is connexin and insult specific: A potential target for neuroprotection. J Neurosci, 2014; 34(32):10582–10591; doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1912-14.2014
174.
DrakeRR, PitlykK, McMastersRA, et al.Connexin-independent ganciclovir-mediated killing conferred on bystander effect-resistant cell lines by a herpes simplex virus-thymidine kinase-expressing colon cell line. Mol Ther, 2000; 2(5):515–523; doi: 10.1006/mthe.2000.0192
175.
OliveiraMC, VerswyvelH, SmitsE, et al.The pro- and anti-tumoral properties of gap junctions in cancer and their role in therapeutic strategies. Redox Biol, 2022; 57:102503; doi: 10.1016/j.redox.2022.102503
176.
DingXS, GaoL, HanZ, et al.Ferroptosis in Parkinson’s disease: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential. Ageing Res Rev, 2023; 91:102077; doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2023.102077
177.
ZhangN, YuX, XieJ, et al.New insights into the role of ferritin in iron homeostasis and neurodegenerative diseases. Mol Neurobiol, 2021; 58(6):2812–2823; doi: 10.1007/s12035-020-02277-7
178.
ZuccaFA, Segura-AguilarJ, FerrariE, et al.Interactions of iron, dopamine and neuromelanin pathways in brain aging and Parkinson’s disease. Prog Neurobiol, 2017; 155:96–119; doi: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.09.012
179.
WangX, WangY, LiZ, et al.Regulation of Ferroptosis pathway by ubiquitination. Front Cell Dev Biol, 2021; 9:699304; doi: 10.3389/fcell.2021.699304
180.
UrsiniF, MaiorinoM. Lipid peroxidation and ferroptosis: The role of GSH and GPx4. Free Radic Biol Med, 2020; 152:175–185; doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.02.027
WuJI, WangLH. Emerging roles of gap junction proteins connexins in cancer metastasis, chemoresistance and clinical application. J Biomed Sci, 2019; 26(1):8; doi: 10.1186/s12929-019-0497-x
183.
VeenstraRD. Size and selectivity of gap junction channels formed from different connexins. J Bioenerg Biomembr, 1996; 28(4):327–337; doi: 10.1007/BF02110109
184.
ZhangH, MengJ, LiangJ, et al.Effect of the dosage of tourmaline on far infrared emission properties of tourmaline/glass composite materials. J Nanosci Nanotechnol, 2016; 16(4):3899–3903; doi: 10.1166/jnn.2016.11844
185.
YuCR, WuY. Regeneration and rewiring of rodent olfactory sensory neurons. Exp Neurol, 2017; 287(Pt 3):395–408; doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.06.001
186.
WuQ, XuX, MiaoX, et al.YAP signaling in horizontal basal cells promotes the regeneration of olfactory epithelium after injury. Stem Cell Reports, 2022; 17(3):664–677; doi: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2022.01.007
187.
GonzalesKAU, FuchsE. Skin and its regenerative powers: An alliance between stem cells and their niche. Dev Cell, 2017; 43(4):387–401; doi: 10.1016/j.devcel.2017.10.001
188.
ZhangX, ShiW, WangX, et al.Evaluation of the composite skin patch loaded with bioactive functional factors derived from multicellular spheres of EMSCs for regeneration of full-thickness skin defects in rats. Curr Stem Cell Res Ther, 2024; 19(8):1142–1152; doi: 10.2174/1574888X19666230908142426
189.
CalzaL, GiulianiA, FernandezM, et al.Neural stem cells and cholinergic neurons: Regulation by immunolesion and treatment with mitogens, retinoic acid, and nerve growth factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 2003; 100(12):7325–7330; doi: 10.1073/pnas.1132092100
190.
BaldaufK, ReymannKG. Influence of EGF/bFGF treatment on proliferation, early neurogenesis and infarct volume after transient focal ischemia. Brain Res, 2005; 1056(2):158–167; doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.07.035
191.
IwakuraY, PiaoYS, MizunoM, et al.Influences of dopaminergic lesion on epidermal growth factor-ErbB signals in Parkinson’s disease and its model: Neurotrophic implication in nigrostriatal neurons. J Neurochem, 2005; 93(4):974–983; doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03073.x
192.
PezzoliG, ZecchinelliA, RicciardiS, et al.Intraventricular infusion of epidermal growth factor restores dopaminergic pathway in hemiparkinsonian rats. Mov Disord, 1991; 6(4):281–287; doi: 10.1002/mds.870060403
193.
MenaMA, CasarejosMJ, Gimenéz-GallegoG, et al.Fibroblast growth factors: Structure-activity on dopamine neurons in vitro. J Neural Transm Park Dis Dement Sect, 1995; 9(1):1–14; doi: 10.1007/BF02252959
194.
TakayamaH, RayJ, RaymonHK, et al.Basic fibroblast growth factor increases dopaminergic graft survival and function in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Nat Med, 1995; 1(1):53–58; doi: 10.1038/nm0195-53
195.
SunD, WangW, WangX, et al.bFGF plays a neuroprotective role by suppressing excessive autophagy and apoptosis after transient global cerebral ischemia in rats. Cell Death Dis, 2018; 9(2):172; doi: 10.1038/s41419-017-0229-7
196.
MartíE, BovolentaP. Sonic hedgehog in CNS development: One signal, multiple outputs. Trends Neurosci, 2002; 25(2):89–96; doi: 10.1016/s0166-2236(02)02062-3
197.
BezardE, BaufretonJ, OwensG, et al.Sonic hedgehog is a neuromodulator in the adult subthalamic nucleus. Faseb J, 2003; 17(15):2337–2338; doi: 10.1096/fj.03-0291fje
198.
TsuboiK, ShultsCW. Intrastriatal injection of sonic hedgehog reduces behavioral impairment in a rat model of Parkinson’s disease. Exp Neurol, 2002; 173(1):95–104; doi: 10.1006/exnr.2001.7825
199.
ZhangY, DongW, GuoS, et al.Lentivirus-mediated delivery of sonic hedgehog into the striatum stimulates neuroregeneration in a rat model of Parkinson disease. Neurol Sci, 2014; 35(12):1931–1940; doi: 10.1007/s10072-014-1866-6
200.
ShaoS, WangGL, RaymondC, et al.Activation of Sonic hedgehog signal by Purmorphamine, in a mouse model of Parkinson’s disease, protects dopaminergic neurons and attenuates inflammatory response by mediating PI3K/AKt signaling pathway. Mol Med Rep, 2017; 16(2):1269–1277; doi: 10.3892/mmr.2017.6751
201.
Gonzalez-ReyesLE, VerbitskyM, BlesaJ, et al.Sonic hedgehog maintains cellular and neurochemical homeostasis in the adult nigrostriatal circuit. Neuron, 2012; 75(2):306–319; doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.05.018
202.
PangK, IngoliaTD. Sonic Hedgehog protein: A novel approach to the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders? CNS Drugs, 1998; 9(4):253–259; doi: 10.2165/00023210-199809040-00001
203.
YangW, ZhangX, QiL, et al.Colon-targeted EMSCs conditional medium hydrogel for treatment of ulcerative colitis in mice. Biomed Mater, 2023; 18(6); doi: 10.1088/1748-605X/acfadb
204.
ZhangZ, LiZ, DengW, et al.Ectoderm mesenchymal stem cells promote differentiation and maturation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 2016; 480(4):727–733; doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.10.115
205.
BianL, WuY, WuJ, et al.Ectoderm mesenchymal stem cells promote osteogenic differentiation of MC3T3-E1 cells by targeting sonic hedgehog signaling pathway. Mol Biol Rep, 2023; 50(2):1293–1302; doi: 10.1007/s11033-022-08022-8
206.
NouralishahiA, FazlinejadN, PechoRDC, et al.Pathological role of inflammation in ocular disease progress and its targeting by mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their exosome; current status and prospect. Pathol Res Pract, 2023; 248:154619; doi: 10.1016/j.prp.2023.154619
207.
RuiK, ZhangZ, TianJ, et al.Olfactory ecto-mesenchymal stem cells possess immunoregulatory function and suppress autoimmune arthritis. Cell Mol Immunol, 2016; 13(3):401–408; doi: 10.1038/cmi.2015.82
208.
Joniec-MaciejakI, CiesielskaA, WawerA, et al.The influence of AAV2-mediated gene transfer of human IL-10 on neurodegeneration and immune response in a murine model of Parkinson’s disease. Pharmacol Rep, 2014; 66(4):660–669; doi: 10.1016/j.pharep.2014.03.008
209.
BidoS, NannoniM, MuggeoS, et al.Microglia-specific IL-10 gene delivery inhibits neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in a mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Sci Transl Med, 2024; 16(761):eadm8563; doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adm8563
210.
TravisMA, SheppardD. TGF-β activation and function in immunity. Annu Rev Immunol, 2014; 32:51–82; doi: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-032713-120257
211.
LuoJ. TGF-β as a Key modulator of astrocyte reactivity: Disease relevance and therapeutic implications. Biomedicines, 2022; 10(5):1206; doi: 10.3390/biomedicines10051206
212.
KumarA, DudhalS, Sundari TA, et al.Dopaminergic-primed fetal liver mesenchymal stromal-like cells can reverse parkinsonian symptoms in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned mice. Cytotherapy, 2016; 18(3):307–319; doi: 10.1016/j.jcyt.2015.11.007
213.
TioM, TanKH, LeeW, et al.Roles of db-cAMP, IBMX and RA in aspects of neural differentiation of cord blood derived mesenchymal-like stem cells. PLoS One, 2010; 5(2):e9398; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009398
214.
LiJF, YinHL, ShuboyA, et al.Differentiation of hUC-MSC into dopaminergic-like cells after transduction with hepatocyte growth factor. Mol Cell Biochem, 2013; 381(1–2):183–190; doi: 10.1007/s11010-013-1701-z
215.
NandySB, MohantyS, SinghM, et al.Fibroblast growth Factor-2 alone as an efficient inducer for differentiation of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells into dopaminergic neurons. J Biomed Sci, 2014; 21(1):83; doi: 10.1186/s12929-014-0083-1
216.
DattaI, MishraS, MohantyL, et al.Neuronal plasticity of human Wharton’s jelly mesenchymal stromal cells to the dopaminergic cell type compared with human bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells. Cytotherapy, 2011; 13(8):918–932; doi: 10.3109/14653249.2011.579957
217.
AlizadehR, BagherZ, KamravaSK, et al.Differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) to dopaminergic neurons: A comparison between Wharton’s Jelly and olfactory mucosa as sources of MSCs. J Chem Neuroanat, 2019; 96:126–133; doi: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2019.01.003
218.
SimorghS, AlizadehR, EftekharzadehM, et al.Olfactory mucosa stem cells: An available candidate for the treatment of the Parkinson’s disease. J Cell Physiol, 2019; 234(12):23763–23773; doi: 10.1002/jcp.28944
