This study addresses two central research questions: (1) are children with incarcerated parents (CIP) more deviant than nonimpacted peers and (2) is a regional mentoring social intervention program effective for CIP? Two sources of data were used, longitudinal data gathered from 173 children involved with a regional branch of Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS) and a sample of children from the Fragile Families (FF) and Child Wellbeing Study. Based on the BBBS data, results find that CIP were more deviant than nonimpacted peers. Unexpectedly, children involved with BBBS reported more deviance after a year of social intervention, compared with children from FF.
AkersRonald L.JensenGary F.2006. “The Empirical Status of Social Learning Theory of Crime and Deviance: The Past, Present, and Future.” Pp. 1-37 in Taking Stock: The Status of Criminological Theory, edited by CullenFrancis T.WrightJ. P.BlevinsK. R.New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
AmmermanR. T.KolkoD. J.KirisciL.BlacksonT. C.DawesM. A.1999. “Child Abuse Potential in Parents with Histories of Substance Use Disorder.” Child Abuse & Neglect23(12):1225–38.
4.
BaberKristine M.2005. “Mentoring Youth.” Pp. 1-4 in UNH Charitable Foundation, edited by UNH Center on Adolescence. Madison, WI.
5.
BaumeisterRoy F.BushmanBrad J.2014. Social Psychology and Human Nature: Comprehensive Edition. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.
6.
BeckerSascha O.IchinoAndrea. 2002. “Estimation of Average Treatment Effects Based on Propensity Scores.” The Stata Journal2(4):358–77.
7.
BellStephen H.BradleyM. C.2013. “Calculating Long-Run Impacts of Social Programs with Staggered Implementation.” Empirical Economics44(1):163–87.
8.
BernardiRichard A.MetzgerRene L.Scofield BrunoRyann G.Wade HoogkampMarisa A.ReyesLillian E.BarnabyGary H.2004. “Examining the Decision Process of Students’ Cheating Behavior: An Empirical Study.” Journal of Business Ethics50:397–14.
9.
BesemerSytskeFarringtonDavid P.2012. “Intergenerational Transmission of Criminal Behaviour: Conviction Trajectories of Fathers and Their Children.” European Journal of Criminology9(2):120–41.
10.
Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA). 2011. “Big Brothers Big Sisters of America Annual Report 2011.” In Annual Report, edited by Big Brothers Big Sisters of America. Tampa, FL. Retrieved from http://www.bbbs.org/financial/
11.
Big Brothers Big Sisters of America (BBBSA). 2014. “Big Brothers Big Sisters of America Annual Report 2014.” In Annual Report, edited by Big Brothers Big Sisters of America. Tampa, FL. Retrieved from http://www.bbbs.org/financial/
12.
BlechmanE. A.BoppJedediah M.2005. “Juvenile Offenders.” Pp. 454–66 in Handbook of Youth Mentoring, edited by DuBoisDavid L.KarcherMichael J.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
BongersIlja L.KootHans M.van der EndeJanVerhulstFrank C.2004. “Developmental Trajectories of Externalizing Behaviors in Childhood and Adolescence.” Child Development75(5):1523–37.
15.
BramanDonald. 2004. Doing Time on the Outside: Incarceration and Family Life in Urban America. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
16.
BramanDonaldWoodJennifer, eds. 2003. From One Generation to the Next: How Criminal Sanctions Are Reshaping Family Life in Urban America. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press.
17.
BritnerP. A.BalcazarF. E.BlechmanE. A.Blinn-PikeL.LaroseS.2006. “Mentoring Special Youth Populations.” Journal of Community Psychology34(6):747–63.
18.
BrusterB. E.ForemanK.2012. “Mentoring Children of Prisoners: Program Evaluation.” Social Work in Public Health27(1–2):3–11.
19.
CaliendoMarcoKopeinigSabine. 2008. “Some Practical Guidance for the Implementation of Propensity Score Matching.” Journal of Economic Surveys22(1):31–72.
20.
CampbellSusan B.SpiekerSusanBurchinalMargaret, Early Child Care Research Network. 2006. “Trajectories of Aggression from Toddlerhood to Age 9 Predict Academic and Social Functioning through Age 12.” The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines47(8):791–800.
21.
CoakleyTanya M.ShearsJeffrey K.RandolphSchenita D.2014. “Understanding Key Barriers to Fathers’ Involvement in Their Children’s Lives.” Child & Youth Services35(4):343–64.
22.
ColemanJames S.1988. “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital.” American Journal of Sociology94:95–120.
23.
ConwayJames M.JonesEdward T.2015. Seven Out of Ten? Not Even Close: A Review of Research on the Likelihood of Children with Incarcerated Parents Becoming Justice-involved. Edited by Institute for Municipal and Regional Policy (IMRP). New Britain, CT: National Institute of Corrections, Central Connecticut State University.
24.
“Crime in the United States.” 2016. In Uniform Crime Report, edited by Federal Bureau of Investigation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2016/
25.
DavisStephen F.GroverCathy A.BeckerAngela H.McGregorLoretta N.1992. “Academic Dishonesty: Prevalence, Determinants, Techniques, and Punishments.” Teaching of Psychology19(1):16–20.
26.
de HaanWillemLoaderIan. 2002. “On the Emotions of Crime, Punishment and Social Control.” Theoretical Criminology6(3):243–53.
27.
DehejiaRajeev H.WahbaSadek. 1999. “Causal Effects in Nonexperimental Studies: Reevaluating the Evaluation of Training Programs.” Journal of the American Statistical Association94(448):1053–62.
28.
DehejiaRajeev H.WahbaSadek. 2002. “Propensity Score-matching Methods for Nonexperimental Causal Studies.” The Review of Economics and Statistics84(1):151–61.
29.
DiStefanoChristineZhuMinMîndrilăDiana. 2009. “Understanding and Using Factor Scores: Considerations for the Applied Researcher.” Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation14(20):1–11.
30.
DuBoisDavid L.FelnerRobert D.BrandStephenAdanAngela M.EvansElizabeth G.1992. “A Prospective Study of Life Stress, Social Support, and Adaptation in Early Adolescence.” Child Development63(3):542–57.
DuBoisDavid L.PortilloNelsonRhodesJean E.SilverthornNaidaValentineJeffrey C.2011. “How Effective Are Mentoring Programs for Youth? A Systematic Assessment of the Evidence.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest12(2):57–91.
33.
DuBoisDavid L.SilverthornNaida. 2005. “Characteristics of Natural Mentoring Relationships and Adolescent Adjustment: Evidence from a National Study.” Journal of Primary Prevention26(2):69–92.
34.
EddyJ. M.PoehlmannJ.2010. Children of Incarcerated Parents: A Handbook for Researchers and Practitioners. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
35.
EllisBruce J.GiudiceMarco DelDishionThomas J.FigueredoAurelio JoséGrayPeterGriskeviciusVladasHawleyPatricia H.JacobsW. JakeJamesJenéeVolkAnthony A.2012. “The Evolutionary Basis of Risky Adolescent Behavior: Implications for Science, Policy, and Practice.” Developmental Psychology48(3):598–623.
36.
FaganJeffrey. 1989. “The Social Organization of Drug Use and Drug Dealing among Urban Gangs.” Criminology27(4):633–70.
37.
FarringtonDavid P.1986. “Age and Crime.” Crime and Justice7:189–250.
38.
FarringtonDavid P.CoidJeremy W.MurrayJoseph. 2009. “Family Factors in the Intergenerational Transmission of Offending.” Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health19(2):109–24.
39.
FarruggiaSusan P.BullenPatDavidsonJoyDunphyAnnSolomonFrankCollinsEfeso. 2011. “The Effectiveness of Youth Mentoring Programmes in New Zealand.” New Zealand Journal of Psychology40(3):52–70.
40.
FergusonKristin M.MindelCharles H.2007. “Modeling Fear of Crime in Dallas Neighborhoods: A Test of Social Capital Theory.” Crime & Delinquency53(2):322–49.
41.
FuscoDana. 2012. “Use of Self in the Context of Youth Work.” Child & Youth Services33(1):33–45.
42.
GellerAmandaFranklinAllyson Walker. 2014. “Paternal Incarceration and the Housing Security of Urban Mothers.” Journal of Marriage and Family76(2):411–27.
43.
GiordanoPeggy C.SchroederRyan D.CernkovichStephen A.2007. “Emotions and Crime over the Life Course: A Neo-Meadian Perspective on Criminal Continuity and Change.” American Journal of Sociology112(6):1603–61.
44.
GiordanoPeggy C.SeffrinPatrick M.ManningWendy D.LongmoreMonica A.2011. “Parenthood and Crime: The Role of Wantedness, Relationships with Partners, and SES.” Journal of Criminal Justice39(5):405–16.
45.
GottfredsonMichael R.HirschiT.1990. A General Theory of Crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
46.
GrossmanJean Baldwin. 2005. “Evaluating Mentoring Programs.” Pp. 251–65 in Handbook of Youth Mentoring, edited by DuBoisDavid L.KarcherMichael J.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
47.
GrossmanJean BaldwinBulleMeridel J.2006. “Review of What Youth Programs Do to Increase the Connectedness of Youth with Adults.” Journal of Adolescent Health39(6):788–99.
48.
GrossmanJean BaldwinChanChristian S.SchwartzSarah E. O.RhodesJean E.2012. “The Test of Time in School-based Mentoring: The Role of Relationship Duration and Re-matching on Academic Outcomes.” American Journal of Community Psychology49(1–2):43–54.
49.
GrossmanJean BaldwinTierneyJoseph P.1998. “Does Mentoring Work? An Impact Study of the Big Brothers Big Sisters Program.” Evaluation Review22:403–26.
50.
HaganJohnFosterHolly. 2006. “Profiles of Punishment and Privilege: Secret and Disputed Deviance during the Racialized Transition to American Adulthood.” Crime, Law and Social Change46(1–2):65–85.
51.
HaganJohnMcCarthyBillFosterHolly. 2002. “A Gendered Theory of Delinquency and Despair in the Life Course.” Acta Sociologica45(1):37–46.
52.
HarperCynthia C.McLanahanSara S.2004. “Father Absence and Youth Incarceration.” Journal of Research on Adolescence14(3):369–97.
53.
HaskinsAnna R.2014. “Unintended Consequences: Effects of Paternal Incarceration on Child School Readiness and Later Special Education Placement.” Sociological Science1(1):141–58.
54.
HeckmanJames J.IchimuraHidehikoToddPetra. 1998. “Matching as an Econometric Evaluation Estimator.” The Review of Economic Studies65(2):261–94.
55.
HippJohn R.BauerDaniel J.CurranPatrick J.BollenKenneth A.2004. “Crimes of Opportunity or Crimes of Emotion? Testing Two Explanations of Seasonal Change in Crime.” Social Forces82(4):1333–72.
56.
HjalmarssonRandiLindquistMatthew J.2012. “Like Godfather, Like Son: Exploring the Intergenerational Nature of Crime.” Journal of Human Resources47(2):550–82.
57.
HuebnerBeth M.GustafsonRegan. 2007. “The Effect of Maternal Incarceration on Adult Offspring Involvement in the Criminal Justice System.” Journal of Criminal Justice35(3):283–96.
58.
JarjouraG. RogerDuBoisDavid L.ShalferRebecca J.HaightKonrad A.2013. Mentoring Children of Incarcerated Parents: A Synthesis of Research and Input from the Listening Session Held by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and the White House Domestic Policy Council and Office of Public Engagement. Edited by Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
59.
JekielekSusanMooreKristin A.HairElizabeth C.2002. Mentoring Programs and Youth Development: A Synthesis. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
60.
JohnsonElizabeth I.EasterlingBeth. 2012. “Understanding Unique Effects of Parental Incarceration on Children: Challenges, Progress, and Recommendations.” Journal of Marriage and Family74(2):342–56.
61.
JohnsonRucker C.2009. “Ever-increasing Levels of Parental Incarceration and the Consequences for Children.” Pp. 177–206 in Do Prisons Make Us Safer? The Benefits and Costs of the Prison Boom, edited by RaphaelStevenStollMichale A.New York: Russell Sage.
62.
JohnsonT.2012. “Mapping the Critical Service Needs of Adolescent Children of Prisoners.” Social Work in Public Health27(1–2):45–68.
63.
JohnstonDenise. 2006. “Children of Incarcerated Parents.” Journal of Children & Poverty12(1):91–105.
64.
JonesShayneCauffmanElizabethPiqueroAlex R.2007. “The Influence of Parental Support among Incarcerated Adolescent Offenders: The Moderating Effects of Self-control.” Criminal Justice and Behavior34(2):229–45.
65.
Kennedy, BruceP.KawachiIchiroProthrow-StithDeborahLochnerKimberlyGuptaVanita. 1998. “Social Capital, Income Inequality, and Firearm Violent Crime.” Social Science & Medicine47(1):7–17.
66.
KimBitnaMerloAlida V.BenekosPeter J.2013. “Effective Correctional Intervention Programmes for Juveniles: Review and Synthesis of Meta-analytic Evidence.” International Journal of Police Science & Management15(3):169–89.
67.
LatimerJeff. 2001. “A Meta-analytic Examination of Youth Delinquency, Family Treatment, and Recidivism.” Canadian Journal of Criminology/Revue Canadienne de Criminologie43(2):237–53.
68.
LaubJohn H.SampsonRobert J.1993. “Turning Points in the Life Course: Why Change Matters to the Study of Crime.” Criminology31(3):301–25.
69.
LaubJohn H.SampsonRobert J.2001. “Understanding Desistance from Crime.” Crime and Justice28:1–69.
70.
LaubJohn H.SampsonRobert J.2002. “Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck’s Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency Study: The Lives of 1,000 Boston Men in the Twentieth Century.” Pp. 87–115 in Looking at Lives: American Longitudinal Studies of the Twentieth Century, edited by PhelpsE.FurstenbergF. F.JrColbyA.New York: Russell Sage.
71.
LaubJohn H.SampsonRobert J.2003. Shared Beginnings, Divergent Lives: Delinquent Boys to Age 70. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
72.
LauritsenJanet L.HeimerKarenLynchJames P.2009. “Trends in the Gender GAP in Violent Offending: New Evidence from the National Crime Victimization Survey.” Criminology47(2):361–99.
73.
LoeberRolfBurkeJeffrey D.2011. “Developmental Pathways in Juvenile Externalizing and Internalizing Problems.” Journal of Research on Adolescence21(1):34–46.
74.
MartoneCynthia. 2005. Loving through Bars: Children with Parents in Prison. Santa Monica, CA: Santa Monica Press.
75.
MatsuedaRoss L.HeimerKaren. 1997. “A Symbolic Interactionist Theory of Role-transitions, Role-commitments and Delinquency.” Pp. 163-213 in Developmental Theories of Crime and Delinquency, edited by ThornberryTerence P. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
McCabeDonald L.TrevinoLinda Klebe. 1997. “Individual and Contextual Influences on Academic Dishonesty: A Multicampus Investigation.” Research in Higher Education38(3):379–96.
78.
McLanahanSaraSchwartzDona. 2002. “Life without Father: What Happens to the Children?”Contexts1(1):35–44.
79.
MeadGeorge Herbert. 1934. Mind, Self & Society from the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
80.
MertonRobert K.1938. “Social Structure and Anomie.” American Sociological Review3 (October):672–82.
81.
MillerJ. MitchellBarnesJ. C.MillerHolly VenturaMcKinnonLayla. 2013. “Exploring the Link between Mentoring Program Structure & Success Rates: Results from a National Survey.” American Journal of Criminal Justice38(3):439–56.
82.
MoffittTerrie E.1993. “Adolescence-limited and Life-course-persistent Antisocial Behavior: A Developmental Taxonomy.” Psychological Review100(4):674–701.
83.
MorrisR. C.2012. “The Relative Influence of Values and Identities on Academic Dishonesty: A Quantitative Analysis.” Current Research in Social Psychology19(2):1–20.
84.
MullerChristopherWildemanChristopher. 2013. “Punishment and Inequality.” Pp. 169–86 in The SAGE Handbook of Punishment and Society, edited by SimonJonathanSparksRichard. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
85.
MurrayJosephBijleveld-CatrienC. J. H.FarringtonDavidLoeberRolf. 2014. Effects of Parental Incarceration on Children: Cross-national Comparative Studies. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
86.
MurrayJosephFarringtonDavid P.SekolIvana. 2012. “Children’s Antisocial Behavior, Mental Health, Drug Use, and Educational Performance after Parental Incarceration: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Psychological Bulletin138(2):175–210.
87.
NaginDaniel S.TremblayRichard E.1999. “Trajectories of Boys’ Physical Aggression, Opposition, and Hyperactivity on the Path to Physically Violent and Nonviolent Juvenile Delinquency.” Child Development70(5):1181–96.
88.
NaginDaniel S.TremblayRichard E.2001. “Parental and Early Childhood Predictors of Persistent Physical Aggression in Boys from Kindergarten to High School.” Archives of General Psychiatry58(4):389–94.
89.
NakkulaM. J.HarrisJ. T.2005. “Assessment of Mentoring Relationships.” Pp. 100–17 in Handbook of Youth Mentoring, edited by DubiousD. L.KarcherM. J.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
90.
NationMauryCrustoCindyWandersmanAbrahamKumpferKarol L.SeyboltDianaMorrissey-KaneErinDavinoKatrina. 2003. “What Works in Prevention: Principles of Effective Prevention Programs.” American Psychologist58(6–7):449–56.
91.
NaudeauSophie. 2010. “Children of Incarcerated Parents: Developmental Trajectories among School-aged Children.” Pp. 47–72 in Children of Incarcerated Parents: Theoretical, Developmental, and Clinical Issues, edited by HarrisY. R.GrahamJ. A.CarpenterG. J. O.New York: Springer.
92.
PaoloBuonannoMontolioDanielVaninPaolo. 2009. “Does Social Capital Reduce Crime?”Journal of Law & Economics52(1):145–70.
93.
ParkeRoss D. and K.Clarke-StewartAlison. 2003. “The Effects of Parental Incarceration on Children: Perspectives, Promises, and Policies.” Pp. 189–232 in Prisoners Once Removed: The Impact of Incarceration and Reentry on Children, Families, and Communities, edited by TravisJeremyWaulMichelle. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
94.
PhillipsSusan D.O’BrienP.2012. “Learning from the Ground up: Responding to Children Affected by Parental Incarceration.” Social Work in Public Health27(1–2):29–44.
95.
PoehlmannJulie. 2005. “Representations of Attachment Relationships in Children of Incarcerated Mothers.” Child Development76(3):679–96.
96.
Rabe-HeskethS.SkrondalA.2012. Multilevel and Longitudinal Modeling Using Stata (Vols. I & II, 3rd ed.). College Station, TX: Stata Press.
97.
RayJames V.JonesShayneLoughranThomas A.JenningsWesley G.2013. “Testing the Stability of Self-control: Identifying Unique Developmental Patterns and Associated Risk Factors.” Criminal Justice and Behavior40:588–607.
98.
ReedD. F.ReedE. L.2004. “Mothers in Prison and Their Children.” Pp. 261–74 in The Criminal Justice System and Women: Offenders, Victims, and Workers, edited by PriceBarbara R.SokoloffNatalie J.New York: McGraw-Hill.
99.
ReichmanNancy E.TeitlerJulien O.GarfinkelIrwinMcLanahanSara S.2001. “Fragile Families: Sample and Design.” Children and Youth Services Review23(4):303–26.
RhodesJean E.2002. Stand by Me: The Risks and Rewards of Mentoring Today’s Youth. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
102.
RhodesJean E.2008. “Improving Youth Mentoring Interventions through Research-based Practice.” American Journal of Community Psychology41(1–2):35–42.
103.
RhodesJean E.GrossmanJean B.ReschNancy L.2000. “Agents of Change: Pathways through Which Mentoring Relationships Influence Adolescents’ Academic Adjustment.” Child Development71:1662–71.
104.
RicheySeanIkedaKen’ichi. 2009. “Institutional Incentives and Trust: Marginalized Groups and the Creation of Trust in Local Government.” Social Science Quarterly90(4):911–26.
RobertsHelenLiaboKristinLucasPatriciaDuBoisDavid L.SheldonTrevor A.2004. “Mentoring to Reduce Antisocial Behaviour in Childhood.” British Medical Journal328(7438):512–14.
107.
RogersW. H.1993. “Regression Standard Errors in Clustered Samples.” Stata Technical Bulletin3(13):19–23.
108.
RoseDina R.ClearTodd R.1998. “Incarceration, Social Capital, and Crime: Implications for Social Disorganization Theory.” Criminology36(3):441–80.
109.
RosenbaumPaul R.RubinDonald B.1983. “The Central Role of the Propensity Score in Observational Studies for Causal Effects.” Biometrika70(1):41–55.
110.
RosenbaumPaul R.RubinDonald B.1984. “Reducing Bias in Observational Studies Using Subclassification on the Propensity Score.” Journal of the American Statistical Association79(387):516–24.
111.
RosenbaumPaul R.RubinDonald B.1985. “Constructing a Control Group Using Multivariate Matched Sampling Methods That Incorporate the Propensity Score.” The American Statistician39(1):33–38.
112.
RussellDaniel W.2002. “In Search of Underlying Dimensions: The Use (and Abuse) of Factor Analysis in Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin28(12):1629–46.
113.
SampsonRobert J.2011. “The Incarceration Ledger.” Criminology & Public Policy10(3):819–28.
114.
SchaferJoseph L.GrahamJohn W.2002. “Missing Data: Our View of the State of the Art.” Psychological Methods7:147–77.
115.
SeridoJoyceBordenLynne M.WiggsChristine B.2014. “Breaking Down Potential Barriers to Continued Program Participation.” Youth & Society46(1):51–69.
116.
SipeCynthia L.2002. “Mentoring Programs for Adolescents: A Research Summary.” Journal of Adolescent Health31(6, Supp. 1):251–60.
117.
SkoganWesley G.1988. “Community Organizations and Crime.” Crime and Justice10:39–78.
118.
SmithDavid J.2005. “Ethnic Differences in Intergenerational Crime Patterns.” Crime and Justice32:59–129.
119.
SmithJeffrey A.ToddPetra E.2001. “Reconciling Conflicting Evidence on the Performance of Propensity-score Matching Methods.” American Economic Review91(2):112–18.
120.
SmithTony R.2004. “Low Self-control, Staged Opportunity, and Subsequent Fraudulent Behavior.” Criminal Justice and Behavior31(5):542–63.
121.
SpencerRenee. 2006. “Understanding the Mentoring Process between Adolescents and Adults.” Youth & Society37(3):287–315.
122.
StrykerSheldonCraftElizabeth A.1982. “Deviance, Selves and Others Revisited.” Youth & Society14(2):159–83.
123.
SutherlandEdwin Hardin. 1947. Principles of Criminology. Chicago, IL: J. B. Lippincott.
124.
ThornberryTerence P.2009. “The Apple Doesn’t Fall Far from the Tree (or Does It?): Intergenerational Patterns of Antisocial Behavior—The American Society of Criminology 2008 Sutherland Address.” Criminology47(2):297–325.
125.
TolanPatrick H.HenryDavidSchoenyMichaelBassArin. 2013. “Mentoring Interventions to Affect Juvenile Delinquency and Associated Problems: A Systematic Review.” Campbell Systematic Reviews9(10):1-148.
126.
TolanPatrick H.HenryDavid B.SchoenyMichael S.LovegrovePeterNicholsEmily. 2014. “Mentoring Programs to Affect Delinquency and Associated Outcomes of Youth at Risk: A Comprehensive Meta-analytic Review.” Journal of Experimental Criminology10(2):179–206.
127.
TravisJeremyWaulMichelle, eds. 2003. Prisoners Once Removed: The Impact of Incarceration and Reentry on Children, Families, and Communities. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
128.
TuranovicJillian J.RodriguezNancyPrattTravis C.2012. “The Collateral Consequences of Incarceration Revisited: A Qualitative Analysis of the Effects on Caregivers of Children of Incarcerated Parents.” Criminology50(4):913–59.
129.
TurnerRalph H.1962. “Role Taking: Process versus Conformity.” Pp. 323–39 in Human Behavior and Social Processes: An Interactionist Approach, edited by RoseArnold M.Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
130.
TurneyKristinSchnittkerJasonWildemanChristopher. 2012. “Those They Leave Behind: Paternal Incarceration and Maternal Instrumental Support.” Journal of Marriage and Family74(5):1149–65.
131.
ValentinoSalemWheelerMarc. 2013. “2013 Youth Outcomes Report.” In Big Brothers Big Sisters Report to America: Positive Outcomes for a Positive Future, edited by Big Brothers Big Sisters of America. Philadelphia, PA.
132.
VazsonyiAlexander T.HuangLi. 2010. Where Self-control Comes from: On the Development of Self-control and Its Relationship to Deviance over Time. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
133.
WacquantLoic. 2001. “Deadly Symbiosis: When Ghetto and Prison Meet and Mesh.” Punishment & Society3(1):95–134.
134.
WakefieldSaraWildemanChristopher. 2011. “Mass Imprisonment and Racial Disparities in Childhood Behavioral Problems.” Criminology & Public Policy10(3):793–817.
135.
WesternBruce. 2006. Punishment and Inequality in America. New York: Russell Sage.
136.
WesternBruceMcLanahanSara. 2000. “Fathers behind Bars: The Impact of Incarceration on Family Formation.” Contemporary Perspectives in Family Research2:309–24.
137.
WildemanChristopher. 2010. “Paternal Incarceration and Children’s Physically Aggressive Behaviors: Evidence from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study.” Social Forces89(1):285–309.
138.
WildemanChristopherWesternBruce. 2010. “Incarceration in Fragile Families.” The Future of Children20(2):157–77.
