Sexual assault self-protection programs often address either broad educational goals (e.g., alcohol awareness, gender, and safety) or are restricted to the practice of violent hands-on self-protection techniques. Enrollment is almost entirely restricted to female audiences, in spite of a high risk of assault among gay men. We describe the development of Elemental, a sexual assault protection program, wherein we undertook a sociologically grounded yet multidisciplinary approach to produce a holistic and inclusive program that teaches a variety of response options, including nonviolent physical and verbal techniques. Through the use of survey data from program participants and a control group, we present results of initial longitudinal tests of the efficacy of the program. Directions for further testing and development are discussed.
AbbeyA.McAuslanP.RossL.1998. “Sexual Assault Perpetration by College Men: The Role of Alcohol, Misperception of Sexual Intent, And Sexual Beliefs and Experiences.” Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology17:167–95.
2.
AbbeyA.ZawackiT.BuckP.TestaM.ParksK.NorrisJ.MartinS.LivingstonJ.McAuslanP.ClintonA. M.KennedyC.GeorgeW.DavisK.MartellJ.2002. “How Does Alcohol Contribute to Sexual Assault? Explanations from Laboratory and Survey Data.” Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research26:575–81.
3.
ArmstrongE.HamiltonL.SweenyB.2006. “Sexual Assault on Campus: A Multilevel Integrative Approach to Party Rape.” Social Problems53:483–99.
4.
BalsamK.BeauchaineT.RothblumE.2005. “Victimization Over the Life Span: A Comparison of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Siblings.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology73:477–87.
5.
BartP.O’BrienP.1981. “A Study of Women Who Both Were Raped and Avoided Rape.” Journal of Social Issues37:123–37.
6.
BartP.O’BrienP.1985. Stopping Rape: Successful Survival Strategies. New York: Pergamon.
7.
BlackB.WeiszA.CoatsS.PattersonD.2000. “Evaluating a Psychoeducational Sexual Assault Prevention Program Incorporating Theatrical Presentation, Peer Education, and Social Work.” Research on Social Work Practice10:589–606.
8.
BlackM. C.BasileK. C.BreidingM. J.SmithS. G.WaltersM. L.MerrickM. T.ChenJ.StevensM. R.2011. The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 Summary Report. Atlanta: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
9.
BrecklinL.UllmanS.2005. “Self-Defense or Assertiveness Training and Women’s Responses to Sexual Attacks.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence20:738–62.
10.
BreitenbecherK.GidyczC.1998. “An Empirical Evaluation of a Program Designed to Reduce the Risk of Multiple Sexual Victimization.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence13:472–88.
11.
BreitenbecherK.ScarceM.1999. “A Longitudinal Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Sexual Assault Education Program.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence14:459–78.
12.
BreitenbecherK.ScarceM.2001. “An Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Sexual Assault Education Program Focusing on Psychological Barriers to Resistance.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence16:387–407.
13.
BrenerN.McMahonP.WarrenC.DouglasK.1999. “Forced Sexual Intercourse and Associated Health-Risk Behaviors among Female College Students in the United States.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology67:252–59.
CialdiniR.2009. Influence: Science and Practice. Boston: Pearson.
16.
DescampsM.RothblumE.BradfordJ.RyanC.2000. “Mental Health Impact of Child Sexual Abuse, Rape, Intimate Partner Violence, and Hate Crimes in the National Lesbian Health Care Survey.” Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services11:27–55.
17.
DuncanD.1990. “Prevalence of Sexual Assault Victimization among Heterosexual and Gay/Lesbian University Students.” Psychological Reports66:65–66.
18.
EdwardsK.TurchikJ.DardisC.ReynoldsN.GidyczC.2011. “Rape Myths: History, Individual and Institutional-level Presence, and Implications for Change.” Sex Roles65:761–73.
19.
FestingerL.1962. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
20.
FisherB.CullenF.TurnerM.2000. The Sexual Victimization of College Women. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice and the Bureau of Justice Statistics.
21.
FrazierP.ValtinsonG.CandellS.1994. “Evaluation of a Coeducational Interactive Rape Prevention Program.” Journal of Counseling & Development73:153–58.
22.
FritzM. S.MacKinnonD. P.2007. “Required Sample Size to Detect the Mediated Effect.” Psychological Science18:233–39.
23.
GidyczC.LaymanM.RichC.CrothersJ.MatorinA.JacobsC.2001. “An Evaluation of an Acquaintance Rape Prevention Program: Impact on Attitudes, Sexual Aggression, and Sexual Victimization.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence16:1120–38.
24.
GidyczC.LohC.LoboT.RichC.LynnS.PashdagJ.2007. “Reciprocal Relationships among Alcohol Use, Risk Perception, and Sexual Victimization: A Prospective Analysis.” Journal of American College Health56:5–14.
25.
GidyczC.LynnS.RichC.MarioniN.LohC.BlackwellL.StaffordJ.FiteR.2001. “The Evaluation of a Sexual Assault Risk Reduction Program: A Multisite Investigation.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology69:1073–78.
26.
GidyczC.Nelson CobleC.LathamL.LaymanM. J.1993. “Sexual Assault Experience in Adulthood and Prior Victimization Experiences.” Psychology of Women Quarterly17:151–68.
27.
GidyczC.RichC.OrchowskiL.KingC.MillerA.2006. “The Evaluation of a Sexual Assault Self-Defense and Risk Reduction Program for College Women: A Prospective Study.” Psychology of Women Quarterly30:173–86.
28.
GouldnerA.1960. “The Norm of Reciprocity: A Preliminary Statement.” American Sociological Review25:161–78.
29.
GreenwaldA.CarnotC.BeachR.YoungB.1987. “Increasing Voting Behavior by Asking People if They Expect to Vote.” Journal of Applied Psychology72:315–18.
30.
HansonK.GidyczC.1993. “Evaluation of a Sexual Assault Prevention Program.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology61:1046–52.
31.
HayesS. K.2012. The Ninja Defense: A Modern Master’s Approach to Universal Dangers. Rutland, VA: Tuttle Publishing.
32.
HeppnerM.HumphreyC.Hillenbrand-GunnT.DeBordK.1995. “The Differential Effects of Rape Prevention Programming on Attitudes, Behavior, and Knowledge.” Journal of Counseling Psychology42:508–18.
33.
HicksonF.DaviesP.HuntA.WeatherburnP.McManusT.CoxonA.1994. “Gay Men as Victims of Nonconsensual Sex.” Archives of Sexual Behavior23:281–94.
34.
HowardD.GenglerC.JainA.1995. “What’s in a Name? Complimentary Means of Persuasion.” Journal of Consumer Research22:200–11.
35.
HughesT.JohnsonT.WilsnackS.2001. “Sexual Assault and Alcohol Abuse: A Comparison of Lesbians and Heterosexual Women.” Journal of Substance Abuse13:515–32.
36.
JohnsonJ.RussI.1989. “Effects of Salience of Consciousness-raising Information on Perceptions of Acquaintance versus Stranger Rape.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology19:1182–97.
37.
KimpsD.DavidseK.2008. “Illocutionary Force and Conduciveness in Imperative Constant Polarity Tag Questions: A Typology.” Text & Talk28:699–722.
38.
KossM.GidyczC.WisniewskiN.1987. “The Scope of Rape: Incidence and Prevalence of Sexual Aggression and Victimization in a National Sample of Higher Education Students.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology55:162–70.
39.
LangerE.BlankA.ChanowitzB.1978. “The Mindlessness of Ostensibly Thoughtful Action: The Role of ‘Placebic’ Information in Interpersonal Interaction.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology36:635–42.
40.
LonswayK.KothariC.2000. “First Year Campus Acquaintance Rape Education: Evaluating the Impact of a Mandatory Intervention.” Psychology of Women Quarterly24:220–32.
41.
LottesI.1991. “The Relationship between Nontraditional Gender Roles and Sexual Coercion.” Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality4:89–109.
42.
MartinS.FisherB.WarnerT.KrebsC.LindquistC.2011. “Women’s Sexual Orientation and Their Experiences of Sexual Assault Before and During University.” Women’s Health Issues21:199–205.
43.
MenningC. L.2009. “Unsafe in Any House?: Attendees’ Perceptions of Microlevel Environmental Traits and Personal Safety at Fraternity and Nonfraternity Parties.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence24:1714–34.
44.
MenningC. L.HoltzmanM.2014. “Processes and Patterns in Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Sexual Assault: A Multimethodological Assessment.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence29:1071–93.
45.
NorrisJ.NuriusP.DimeffL.1996. “Through Her Eyes: Factors Affecting Women’s Perceptions of and Resistance to Acquaintance Sexual Aggression Threat.” Psychology of Women Quarterly20:123–45.
46.
NuriusP.2000. “Risk Perception for Acquaintance Sexual Aggression: A Social-cognitive Perspective.” Aggression and Violent Behavior5:63–78.
47.
NuriusP.NorrisJ.YoungD.GrahamT.GaylordJ.2000. “Interpreting and Defensively Responding to Threat: Examining Appraisals and Coping with Acquaintance Sexual Aggression.” Violence and Victims15:187–208.
OrchowskiL.GidyczC.RaffleH.2008. “Evaluation of a Sexual Assault Risk Reduction and Self-defense Program: A Prospective Analysis of a Revised Protocol.” Psychology of Women Quarterly32:204–18.
50.
O’SullivanL.ByersE.FinkelmanL.1998. “A Comparison of Male and Female College Students’ Experiences of Sexual Coercion.” Psychology of Women Quarterly22:177–95.
51.
Pizone-GloverH.GidyczC.JacobsC.1998. “An Acquaintance Rape Prevention Program: Effects on Attitudes toward Women, Rape-related Attitudes, and Perceptions of Rape Scenarios.” Psychology of Women Quarterly22:605–21.
ReganD.1971. “Effects of a Favor and Liking on Compliance.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology7:627–39.
54.
RomeoF.2004. “Acquaintance Rape on College and University Campuses.” College Student Journal38:61–65.
55.
RothmanE.SilvermanJ.2007. “The Effect of a College Sexual Assault Prevention Program on First Year Students’ Victimization Rates.” Journal of American College Health55:283–90.
56.
RyanK.2011. “The Relationship between Rape Myths and Sexual Scripts: The Social Construction of Rape.” Sex Roles65:774–82.
57.
Struckman-JohnsonC.1988. “Forced Sex on Dates: It Happens to Men, Too.” The Journal of Sex Research24:234–41.
58.
Struckman-JohnsonC.Struckman-JohnsonD.AndersonP.2003. “Tactics of Sexual Coercion: When Men and Women Won’t Take No for an Answer.” The Journal of Sex Research40:76–86.
59.
TewksburyR.MustaineE.2001. “Lifestyle Factors Associated with the Sexual Assault of Men: A Routine Activity Theory Analysis.” The Journal of Men’s Studies9:153–82.
60.
UllmanS.1998. “Does Offender Violence Escalate When Rape Victims Fight Back?”Journal of Interpersonal Violence13:179–92.
61.
UllmanS.NajdowskiC.2010. “Understanding Alcohol-related Sexual Assaults: Characteristics and Consequences.” Violence and Victims25:29–44.
62.
VladutiuC.MartinS.MacyR.2011. “College-or University-based Sexual Assault Prevention Programs: A Review of Program Outcomes, Characteristics, and Recommendations.” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse12:67–86.
63.
Waldner-HaugrudL.1997. “Sexual Coercion In Gay/Lesbian Relationships: Descriptives and Gender Differences.” Victims and Victimology12:87–98.
64.
WaltersM.ChenJ.BreidingM.2013. The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (Nisvs): 2010 Findings on Victimization by Sexual Orientation. Atlanta: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
65.
WatermanC.DawsonL.BolognaM.1989. “Sexual Coercion in Gay Male and Lesbian Relationships: Predictors and Implications for Support Services.” Journal of Sex Research26:118–24.
