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Abstract

The stem bark and leaves of Daniellia oliveri were obtained from two sites, Batsari and Zurmi, in Nigeria. Leaves of Leptoderris micrantha were obtained from Agbagi, Nigeria. Essential oils of these plants were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The major components in the bark essential oil of D. oliveri were δ-cadinene (12.8%), α-muurolene (6.7%), α-calacorene (5.9%), and caryophyllene oxide (5.5%). The major components in the leaf essential oils from Batsari and Zurmi, respectively, were humulene epoxide II (8.0% and 16.3%), caryophyllene oxide (7.4% and 12.4%), pentadecanal (8.9% and 6.0%), phytone (6.5% and 2.2%), δ-cadinene (5.3% and 3.0%), and α-muurolene (5.3% and 2.6%). The major components in the leaf essential oil of L. micrantha were incensole (16.2%), phytone (15.4%), pentadecanal (13.7%), α-pinene (7.7%), and iso-phytol (5.2%). The essential oils were screened for antibacterial activity against Bacillus cereus, Cutibacterium acnes, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Serratia marcescens, and for antifungal activity against Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Cryptococcus neoformans, Microsporum canis, Microsporum gypseum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Trichophyton rubrum, and Candida albicans, using the microbroth dilution method. The leaf essential oils of D. oliveri and L. micrantha showed only marginal activity against the panel of microorganisms. However, D. oliveri bark essential oil showed notable antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger and Trichophyton rubrum with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 78.1 µg/mL for each. This is the first report on the essential oil compositions of D. oliveri and L. micrantha from Nigeria and their antimicrobial activities.

Keywords

essential oil sesquiterpenoids diterpenoids antibacterial antifungal

Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. & Dalziel (Caesalpinioideae, Fabaceae) is a deciduous tree with a flat-topped crown.¹ The tree ranges from Senegal to South Sudan and Uganda, south of Sahal, where it is the most widespread tree species of the Savannah.² In Nigeria, the tree is known as “iya” in Yoruba, “maje” in Hausa, and “abwa” in Ibo.³ In northern Nigeria, leaves of D. oliveri are used to treat diabetes, gastrointestinal problems, diarrhea, as a diuretic and an aphrodisiac,⁴ the bark and the resin are used as a mosquito repellent,⁵ and extracts of the bark are used in Burkina Faso to treat small ruminant gastrointestinal parasites.⁶ The resin of D. oliveri has yielded the labdane diterpenoids daniellic acid⁷ and oliveric acid,⁸ while triterpenoids and flavonoids have been isolated from the leaves.⁹

Leptoderris micrantha Dunn (Papilionoideae, Fabaceae) is a liana with brown bark and light pink or purple flowers. The plant is native to Guinea, Ghana, and Southern Nigeria and is called “atari obuko” or “ewe awo” in southwestern Nigeria. A leaf decoction is taken as an aphrodisiac and treatment for male impotence,¹⁰ and as a treatment for psychosis, dropsy, swellings, edema, gout, and pulmonary troubles.¹¹ The leaves of L. micrantha have been reported to contain rotenone.¹² As part of our continuing investigation on essential oils from Nigerian medicinal plants and their biological activities, this investigation was focused on the analysis and antimicrobial properties of the leaf and bark essential oils of D. oliveri and the leaf essential oil of L. micrantha.

Results and Discussion

Chemical Compositions

Daniellia oliveri

Leaf and stem bark essential oils of D. oliveri were obtained from Batsari (Katsina State) in yields of 1.54% and 1.94%, respectively. The leaf essential oil of D. oliveri from Zurmi (Zamfara State) was obtained in 1.62% yield. The essential oils were pale-yellow in color.

Sesquiterpenoids dominated the essential oils of D. oliveri (Table 1). The bark essential oil from Batsari was composed largely of δ-cadinene (12.8%), α-muurolene (6.7%), α-calacorene (5.9%), and caryophyllene oxide (5.5%). The major components in the leaf essential oils from Batsari and Zurmi, respectively, were humulene epoxide II (8.0% and 16.3%), caryophyllene oxide (7.4% and 12.4%), pentadecanal (8.9% and 6.0%), phytone (6.5% and 2.2%), δ-cadinene (5.3% and 3.0%), and α-muurolene (5.3% and 2.6%).

Table 1

Chemical Compositions of the Stem Bark and Leaf Essential Oils of Daniellia oliveri From Nigeria.

RI_calc ^a	RI_db ^b	Compound	Percent composition ± standard deviations^c
RI_calc ^a	RI_db ^b	Compound	Batsari bark	Batsari leaf	Zurmi leaf
932	933	α-Pinene	1.25 ± 0.03	―	―
1347	1349	α-Cubebene	4.67 ± 0.20	1.91 ± 0.09	0.54 ± 0.05
1368	1367	Cyclosativene	0.69 ± 0.06	0.69 ± 0.09	0.46 ± 0.09
1375	1375	α-Copaene	2.98 ± 0.01	1.66 ± 0.06	0.92 ± 0.06
1384	1382	β-Bourbonene	―	0.29 ± 0.04	0.20 ± 0.06
1387	1392	β-Cubebene	1.70 ± 0.16	1.40 ± 0.14	0.43 ± 0.03
1389	1390	trans-β-Elemene	0.49 ± 0.04	0.27 ± 0.01	0.25 ± 0.05
1401	1405	Sesquithujene	0.67 ± 0.09	1.08 ± 0.17	0.95 ± 0.10
1412	1413	cis-α-Bergamotene	0.62 ± 0.11	1.07 ± 0.01	0.66 ± 0.07
1419	1424	(E)-Caryophyllene	4.67 ± 0.17	2.66 ± 0.13	2.00 ± 0.13
1429	1433	β-Copaene	―	―	0.20 ± 0.09
1433	1432	trans-α-Bergamotene	0.91 ± 0.03	1.26 ± 0.01	2.07 ± 0.02
1442	1439	(Z)-β-Farnesene	0.47 ± 0.09	―	0.21 ± 0.03
1444	1449	α-Himachalene	―	0.59 ± 0.01	0.68 ± 0.11
1446	1447	Geranyl acetone	―	2.95 ± 0.08	1.47 ± 0.10
1448	1453	trans-Muurola-3,5-diene	0.51 ± 0.02	―	―
1453	1451	(E)-β-Farnesene	―	0.64 ± 0.08	0.67 ± 0.10
1455	1454	α-Humulene	1.15 ± 0.02	1.50 ± 0.05	2.99 ± 0.13
1457	1455	Sesquisabinene	1.41 ± 0.09	1.64 ± 0.09	1.88 ± 0.08
1459	1458	allo-Aromadendrene	1.33 ± 0.03	0.81 ± 0.04	0.56 ± 0.13
1471	1472	trans-Cadina-1(6),4-diene	0.98 ± 0.19	―	―
1474	1478	γ-Muurolene	4.70 ± 0.37	3.08 ± 0.02	2.72 ± 0.19
1476	1481	(E)-β-Ionone	―	1.51 ± 0.06	0.99 ± 0.15
1478	1480	γ-Himachalene	0.84 ± 0.18	0.84 ± 0.05	1.02 ± 0.17
1480	1480	ar-Curcumene	4.56 ± 0.09	2.83 ± 0.05	3.46 ± 0.11
1483	1483	trans-β-Bergamotene	1.05 ± 0.19	1.31 ± 0.17	1.88 ± 0.26
1488	1487	β-Selinene	2.00 ± 0.05	2.26 ± 0.04	2.94 ± 0.11
1491	1490	γ-Amorphene	1.53 ± 0.02	0.83 ± 0.38	0.49 ± 0.09
1495	1497	Bicyclogermacrene	3.57 ± 0.07	―	―
1495	1497	α-Selinene	―	1.67 ± 0.39	1.36 ± 0.21
1497	1497	α-Muurolene	6.71 ± 0.15	5.29 ± 0.25	2.63 ± 0.12
1499	1501	(Z)-α-Bisabolene	―	0.30 ± 0.07	0.44 ± 0.03
1507	1508	β-Bisabolene	2.82 ± 0.03	2.64 ± 0.01	3.96 ± 0.28
1508	1511	β-Curcumene	0.74 ± 0.06	―	0.49 ± 0.11
1512	1512	γ-Cadinene	2.35 ± 0.11	1.33 ± 0.11	1.81 ± 0.23
1517	1518	δ-Cadinene	12.82 ± 0.27	5.30 ± 0.10	3.02 ± 0.26
1520	1521	trans-Calamenene	2.72 ± 0.03	1.15 ± 0.21	0.68 ± 0.03
1522	1521	Zonarene	1.08 ± 0.11	―	―
1523	1523	β-Sesquiphellandrene	1.14 ± 0.13	0.98 ± 0.06	0.99 ± 0.10
1532	1536	trans-Cadina-1,4-diene	1.14 ± 0.08	―	―
1540	1544	α-Calacorene	5.91 ± 0.08	1.72 ± 0.12	1.83 ± 0.10
1554	―	Unidentified^d	―	1.65 ± 0.32	1.11 ± 0.19
1567	1566	1,5-Epoxysalvial-4(14)-ene	―	―	0.54 ± 0.12
1581	1587	Caryophyllene oxide	5.54 ± 0.12	7.38 ± 0.42	12.41 ± 0.67
1591	1593	Salvial-4(14)-en-1-one	0.89 ± 0.13	―	0.65 ± 0.16
1608	1607	Humulene epoxide I	1.63 ± 0.04	7.97 ± 0.02	16.33 ± 1.18
1612	1614	Tetradecanal	―	1.77 ± 0.02	1.45 ± 0.13
1631	1635	(Z,Z)-Geranyl linalool	―	―	0.65 ± 0.05
1642	1643	Cubenol	1.67 ± 0.20	0.48 ± 0.03	―
1671	1677	Cadalene	4.45 ± 0.11	2.50 ± 0.08	1.74 ± 0.12
1698	1702	10-nor-Calamenen-10-one	1.48 ± 0.09	―	0.84 ± 0.24
1714	1715	Pentadecanal	1.98 ± 0.16	8.93 ± 0.21	6.00 ± 0.36
1836	1836	Neophytadiene	―	2.83 ± 0.74	1.92 ± 0.18
1837	―	Unidentified^e	1.48 ± 0.06	―	―
1840	1841	Phytone	0.63 ± 0.08	6.53 ± 0.23	2.22 ± 0.09
1861	1861	3-Phytadiene	―	0.59 ± 0.19	0.46 ± 0.19
1879	1879	4-Phytadiene	―	1.02 ± 0.49	0.70 ± 0.16
1884	1886	(Z)-Hexadecatrienal	―	0.64 ± 0.11	0.81 ± 0.14
1889	1891	(E)-Hexadecatrienal	―	0.48 ± 0.13	0.81 ± 0.12
1892	1899	Heptadecanal	―	0.86 ± 0.21	0.65 ± 0.02
1907	1902	(5E,9E)-Farnesyl acetone	―	2.45 ± 0.08	0.95 ± 0.15
		Monoterpene hydrocarbons	1.25	0.00	0.00
		Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons	83.45	51.41	47.13
		Oxygenated sesquiterpenoids	9.73	15.82	30.58
		Sesquiterpenoid derivatives	1.48	4.46	3.30
		Diterpenoids	0.00	4.43	3.08
		Diterpenoid derivatives	0.63	8.98	3.17
		Fatty acid derivatives	1.98	12.67	9.72
		Total identified	98.51	97.76	96.99

^aRI_calc = Retention index calculated with respect to a homologous series of n-alkanes on a ZB-5ms column.

^bRI_db = Retention index from the databases.^13

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^cAverage of 3 injections of each essential oil.

^dMS (EI): 220 (8%), 164 (7%), 149 (5%), 138 (90%), 123 (31%), 121 (30%), 120 (30%), 110 (45%), 109 (62%), 105 (37%), 96 (100%), 95 (74%), 93 (30%), 82 (38%), 79 (36%), 67 (54%), 55 (38%), 53 (25%), 43 (16%), 41 (46%).

^eMS (EI): 186 (27%), 172 (18%), 171 (100%), 156 (22%), 145 (12%), 129 (12%), 119 (11%), 115 (10%), 105 (7%), 95 (8%), 91 (7%), 82 (7%), 68 (10%), 57 (8%), 55 (8%), 43 (27%), 41 (8%).

Menut and co-workers had previously obtained and analyzed the bark essential oils of D. oliveri from Benin and Burkina Faso.¹⁷ Although qualitatively similar, there are some notable differences between the bark essential oil from Nigeria and those from Benin and Burkina Faso. Germacrene D was one of the dominant sesquiterpenes in the essential oil from Burkina Faso (29.5%) and a major component in the essential oil from Benin (4.5%), but was not detected in the bark essential oil from Nigeria. Conversely, caryophyllene oxide (5.5%) and cadalene (4.5%) were significant components of the Nigerian bark essential oil, but these components were not reported in the bark essential oils from either Benin or Burkina Faso.

The leaf essential oils, previously reported, from Ivory Coast and from Senegal were dominated by δ-cadinene (24.2% and 31.1%, respectively)¹⁸ Other major components were α-copaene (Ivory Coast, 7.0%; Senegal, 8.3%) and γ-muurolene (Ivory Coast, 4.0%; Senegal, 4.4%), which are consistent with the composition of the leaf essential oils from Nigeria. However, cyperene, found in the leaf essential oils from Ivory Coast and Senegal (3.8% and 4.8%, respectively), was not detected in the leaf essential oils from Nigeria. Conversely, neither pentadecanal nor phytone, major components in the leaf essential oils from Nigeria, were reported in the leaf essential oils from Ivory Coast or Senegal.

Overall, sesquiterpenoids have dominated the leaf and bark essential oils of D. oliveri, but there are quantitative differences in composition, which may be attributed to geographical location as well as seasonal variation.

Leptoderris micrantha

Hydrodistillation of L. micrantha leaves, collected from Agbagi, Ikire (Osun state), Nigeria, yielded a pale-yellow essential oil in 0.53% (w/w) yield. The major components in the leaf essential oil of L. micrantha were incensole (16.2%), phytone (15.4%), pentadecanal (13.7%), α-pinene (7.7%), and iso-phytol (5.2%) (Table 2). As far as we are aware, there have been no previous reports on the essential oil from L. micrantha or any Leptoderris species. Although there are apparently no reports on essential oils from Leptoderris species reported in the literature, there are several essential oils in the Fabaceae worth mentioning. Incensole was a major component (11.1%) in the essential oil of Indigofera aspalathoides from southern India.¹⁹ Phytone and pentadecanal were major components in Lupinus varius essential oil from Jordan (20.5% and 10.2%, respectively)²⁰ and Vicia caroliniana essential oil from Alabama (21.5% and 5.7%, respectively).²¹ Thus, these compounds are not uncommon in essential oils of the Fabaceae.

Table 2

Chemical Composition of the Leaf Essential Oil of Leptoderris micrantha From Nigeria.

RI_calc ^a	RI_db ^b	Compound	%, Average ± standard deviation^c
932	933	α-Pinene	7.71 ± 0.41
1022	1025	p-Cymene	1.53 ± 0.10
1027	1030	Limonene	1.17 ± 0.09
1343	1349	α-Cubebene	1.37 ± 0.03
1372	1375	α-Copaene	2.02 ± 0.14
1417	1417	(E)-Caryophyllene	1.35 ± 0.11
1419	1429	(E)-α-Ionone	2.02 ± 0.18
1444	1447	Geranyl acetone	0.52 ± 0.11
1453	1454	α-Humulene	0.34 ± 0.21
1473	1478	γ-Muurolene	0.33 ± 0.16
1476	1481	(E)-β-Ionone	0.39 ± 0.14
1479	1480	Germacrene D	0.62 ± 0.15
1481	1480	γ-Himachalene	0.37 ± 0.03
1488	1487	β-Selinene	0.23 ± 0.09
1491	1492	trans-Muurola-4(14),5-diene	0.20 ± 0.11
1494	1497	Bicyclogermacrene	1.16 ± 0.01
1498	1500	α-Muurolene	0.73 ± 0.09
1510	1516	Tridecanal	0.54 ± 0.13
1512	1512	γ-Cadinene	0.29 ± 0.09
1517	1518	δ-Cadinene	1.75 ± 0.13
1521	1519	trans-Calamenene	0.93 ± 0.27
1541	1544	α-Calacorene	0.76 ± 0.36
1567	1573	Tridec-(2E)-enal	0.83 ± 0.09
1578	1578	Spathulenol	0.43 ± 0.21
1584	1587	Caryophyllene oxide	1.09 ± 0.23
1614	1614	Tetradecanal	2.36 ± 0.46
1630	1631	1-epi-Cubenol	0.81 ± 0.05
1646	1643	Cubenol	0.55 ± 0.15
1647	1645	τ-Muurolol	0.33 ± 0.13
1673	―	Unidentified^d	1.49 ± 0.07
1677	1677	Cadalene	0.41 ± 0.16
1678	1681	Mustakone	0.53 ± 0.10
1718	1715	Pentadecanal	13.74 ± 0.61
1761	1758	Myristic acid	0.69 ± 0.25
1822	1818	Hexadecanal	0.70 ± 0.09
1846	1841	Phytone	15.38 ± 0.63
1926	1920	Heptadecanal	1.67 ± 0.24
1952	1946	iso-Phytol	5.23 ± 0.11
1962	1961	(3Z)-Cembrene A	1.14 ± 0.08
2110	2106	Phytol	2.40 ± 0.12
2145	―	Unidentified^e	5.74 ± 0.57
2159	2159	Incensole	16.17 ± 1.21
2348	2342	4,8,12,16-Tetramethylheptadecan-4-olide	1.52 ± 0.05
		Monoterpene hydrocarbons	10.41
		Oxygenated monoterpenoids	0.00
		Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons	12.85
		Sesquiterpenoid derivatives	2.94
		Oxygenated sesquiterpenoids	3.75
		Diterpenoids	26.45
		Diterpenoid derivatives	15.38
		Fatty acid derivatives	20.53
		Total identified	92.30

^aRI_calc = Retention index calculated with respect to a homologous series of n-alkanes on a ZB-5ms column.

^bRI_db = Retention index from the databases^13

-16.

^cAverage of 3 injections of the essential oil.

^dMS (EI): 196 (5%), 137 (9%), 126 (29%), 111 (28%), 95 (37%), 85 (38%), 81 (38%), 71 (70%), 70 (51%), 69 (55%), 57 (100%), 43 (80%), 41 (52%).

^eMS (EI): 272 (3%), 257 (3%), 229 (4%), 189 (4%), 161 (7%), 149 (13%), 135 (17%), 123 (17%), 121 (33%), 111 (23%), 109 (25%), 107 (30%), 97 (35%), 95 (37%), 93 (40%), 84 (100%), 81 (45%), 71 (37%), 69 (48%), 67 (32%), 59 (24%), 57 (35%), 55 (45%), 43 (64%), 41 (49%).

Antimicrobial Activity

The bark and leaf essential oils of D. oliveri (Batsari) and the leaf essential oil of L. micrantha have been screened for activity against a panel of 7 bacteria and 8 fungi (Table 3). The leaf essential oils of D. oliveri and L. micrantha showed only marginal activity against the panel of microorganisms with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ≥156 µg/mL. However, D. oliveri bark essential oil showed notable antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger and Trichophyton rubrum with an MIC of 78.1 µg/mL for each. It is difficult to speculate as to what components in the bark essential oil of D. oliveri may be responsible for the antifungal activity. The major components were δ-cadinene (12.8%), α-muurolene (6.7%), α-calacorene (5.9%), and caryophyllene oxide (5.5%). Caryophyllene oxide has shown only weak activity against A. niger (MIC = 625 µg/mL).²² As far as we are aware, neither δ-cadinene, α-muurolene, nor α-calacorene have been individually screened for antifungal activity. However, essential oils with these components have shown antifungal activity. For example, the essential oil of Xenophyllum poposum, with δ-cadinene (16.5%), α-muurolene (3.0%), and α-calacorene (1.1%), showed antifungal activity against A. fumigatus (MIC = 25 µg/mL) and T. rubrum (MIC = 50 µg/mL)²³; Teucrium montanum essential oil, with δ-cadinene (17.2%), α-muurolene (1.7%), and α-calacorene (5.0%), was active against Fusarium oxysporum in a zone-of-inhibition assay.²⁴

Table 3

Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities (MIC, μg/mL) of Daniellia oliveri (Batsari) and Leptoderris micrantha Essential Oils From Nigeria.

Organism	Daniellia oliveri		Leptoderris micrantha	Positivecontrol^a
Organism	Bark	Leaf	Leaf	Positivecontrol^a
Gram-positive bacteria
Bacillus cereus	625	625	625	1.22
Cutibacterium acnes	313	313	313	<19.5
Staphylococcus aureus	625	1250	1250	0.61
Staphylococcus epidermidis	156	625	156	<19.5
Streptococcus pyogenes	156	625	313	<19.5
Gram-negative bacteria
Pseudomonas aeruginosa	313	625	313	1.22
Serratia marcescens	625	625	625	<19.5
Molds
Aspergillus fumigatus	156	313	156	<19.5
Aspergillus niger	78	313	156	1.56
Cryptococcus neoformans	313	313	313	0.78
Microsporum canis	156	313	313	<19.5
Microsporum gypseum	313	313	313	<19.5
Trichophyton mentagrophytes	156	156	313	<19.5
Trichophyton rubrum	78	313	313	<19.5
Yeast
Candida albicans	313	313	313	1.56

Abbreviation: MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration.

^aGentamicin for bacteria, amphotericin B for fungi.

Trichophyton rubrum is a common dermatophytic fungus and is commonly involved in tinea pedis (athlete’s foot), tinea cruris (jock itch), and tinea corporis (ringworm).^25
-27 Microsporum canis and T. mentagrophytes are also dermatophytic fungi responsible for ringworm.^28,29 Essential oils have been examined as potential alternatives to conventional drugs for treatment of tinea infections,^30
-32 and the observed antifungal activity of D. oliveri bark essential oil suggests that it may also serve as a treatment option for athlete’s foot, ringworm, or other tinea infections.

Conclusions

This investigation has revealed the compositions of the essential oils from D. oliveri and L. micrantha, two members of the Fabaceae growing in Nigeria. Antimicrobial screening has shown D. oliveri bark essential oil to have promising antifungal properties and may be useful in treating dermal fungal infections such as athlete’s foot or ringworm.

Materials and Methods

Plant Material

Daniellia oliveri leaf and stem bark samples were taken directly from source trees in 2 sites in northern Nigeria, Batsari (Katsina State, 12°45′19.84″ N, 7°14′53.12″ E, 472 m elevation) and Zurmi (Zamfara State, Zurmi Local Government, 12°45′59.99″ N, 6°47′5.99″ E, 390 m elevation). Both leaves and stem bark of D. oliveri were obtained in the month of April, 2019. The plants were taxonomically identified and authenticated by Namadi Sunusi. A voucher specimen (number 01186) has been deposited in the Department of Biological Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria. The leaves and stem bark were manually removed, air-dried in the laboratory for 7‐10 days, and then pulverized using electric blender.

Samples (450 g each) of both leaves and stem bark of D. oliveri were subjected to hydrodistillation in an all-glass Clevenger-type apparatus. Each of the D. oliveri samples and water were mixed in a ratio of 2:6, and the mixture was stirred constantly during hydrodistillation for 3 hours until no more essential oil was apparent in the distillate. The oils were dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and stored in sealed amber vials under refrigeration (4 °C) prior to analysis.

The fresh leaves of Leptoderris micrantha (1.5 kg) were collected in the month of July, 2019, from Agbagi, Ikire (7°43′0″ N, 4°14′0″ E, 425 m elevation) in Irewole Local Government Area, Osun state, Nigeria. The plant was taxonomically identified and authenticated by Mr S. A. Odewo at the Forest Research Institute of Nigeria (FRIN) Jericho Ibadan, Oyo state, where a voucher specimen (FHI 112550) was deposited. The leaves of L. micrantha were air-dried in the laboratory for 5 days and then pulverized using a blender before hydrodistillation.

The essential oil from the leaves of L. micrantha was obtained by hydrodistillation. The plant materials (500 g) were introduced into a 5-L flask and distilled water was added until it covered the sample. Hydrodistillation was carried out twice for 3-4 hours in an all-glass modified Clevenger apparatus. The essential oil isolated in the arm of Clevenger apparatus was carefully isolated and transferred to a preweighed amber sample bottle, dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate, and stored under refrigeration (4 °C) until ready for analysis. Hydrodistillation of L. micrantha leaves yielded a pale-yellow essential oil in 0.53% (w/w) yield.

Gas Chromatographic-Mass Spectral Analysis

The essential oils were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry as previously reported³³ using a Shimadzu GCMS-QP2010 Ultra, electron impact mode with electron energy =70 eV, scan range =40-400 atomic mass units, scan rate =3.0 scans/s, and Shimadzu GC-MS solution software v. 4.45 (Shimadzu Scientific Instruments, Columbia, MD, USA); ZB-5ms fused silica capillary GC column Phenomenex, Torrance, CA, USA; (5% phenyl)-polymethylsiloxane stationary phase, 0.25 µm film thickness; helium carrier gas, column head pressure = 552 kPa, flow rate = 1.37 mL/min; injector temperature = 260 °C, ion source temperature = 260 °C; GC oven temperature program: initial temperature = 50 °C, temperature increased 2 °C/min to 260 °C. For each sample, a 5% w/v solution in CH₂Cl₂ was prepared, 0.1 µL was injected using a split ratio of 30:1. Retention indices (RIs) were determined using a homologous series of n-alkanes.³⁴ Identification of the essential oil components was carried out by comparison of mass spectral fragmentation patterns in addition to RI comparison with those reported in the databases^13

-16 using the LabSolutions GCMS solution software version 4.45 (Shimadzu Scientific Instruments, Columbia, MD, USA) and with matching factors >90%.

Antimicrobial Screening

The essential oils were screened for antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus cereus [ATCC No. 14579], Cutibacterium acnes [ATCC No. 11827], Staphylococcus aureus [ATCC No. 29213], Staphylococcus epidermidis [ATCC No. 12228], and Streptococcus pyogenes [ATCC No. 19615]) and Gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa [ATCC No. 27853], and Serratia marcescens [ATCC No. 14756]), and for antifungal activity against the molds (Aspergillus fumigatus [ATCC No. 96918], Aspergillus niger [ATCC No. 16888], Cryptococcus neoformans [ATCC No. 32045], Microsporum canis [ATCC No. 11621], Microsporum gypseum [ATCC No. 24102], Trichophyton mentagrophytes [ATCC No. 18748], and Trichophyton rubrum [ATCC No. 28188]), and 1 yeast (Candida albicans [ATCC No. 18804]) using the microbroth dilution technique^35,36 as previously reported.^37,38

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

NSD and WNS participated in this work as part of the activities of the Aromatic Plant Research Center (APRC, https://aromaticplant.org/).

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

William N. Setzer

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Antimicrobial Activities and Chemical Compositions of Daniellia oliveri and Leptoderris micrantha (Fabaceae) Essential Oils From Nigeria

Abstract

Keywords

Results and Discussion

Chemical Compositions

Daniellia oliveri

Leptoderris micrantha

Antimicrobial Activity

Conclusions

Materials and Methods

Plant Material

Gas Chromatographic-Mass Spectral Analysis

Antimicrobial Screening

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iD

References