Teaching Early Writing: Educators’ Stories of Practice Within Early Childhood Settings

Abstract

Teaching writing constitutes a complex pedagogical endeavour, exacerbated by recent curriculum innovations and heightened professional expectations that challenge early childhood educators to adopt rich and meaningful pedagogies to facilitate early writing development. Nevertheless, writing pedagogies and policies are often informed without sufficient consideration for educators’ perspectives. Drawing on the principles of narrative inquiry, this study provides a comprehensive examination of the beliefs of three experienced early childhood educators, elucidating their professional knowledge and practices regarding early writing during the year preceding the commencement of formal primary education. Through an extensive collection of artefacts in conjunction with researcher-teacher interview data, small narratives that embody the lived experiences and pedagogical viewpoints of these educators were analysed. The findings underscore the importance of valuing and prioritising educator judgement, agency, and professionalism in the instruction of early writing.

Introduction

Early writing has gained momentum in early childhood education, following a lag behind the growing body of research that encompasses children’s oral language, reading development, and literacy learning (Bingham & Gerde, 2023; Hempenstall & Buckingham, 2016). While this renewed focus is appreciated, the instruction of writing is also under review, as reforms necessitate deliberate teaching and a clear emphasis on literacy outcomes (Australian Government Department of Education [AGDE], 2022). Contemporary and emerging literacies and literate practices, as evidenced by policy and curriculum reforms, have challenged early childhood educators to address the teaching of writing, thereby providing additional opportunities to review writing practices and pedagogies in preschool settings. Accordingly, this study aimed to address the following research question:

How do early childhood educators' beliefs and personal practical knowledge influence their pedagogical practices in preschool early writing instruction?

This study examined educators’ beliefs and practices through the theoretical framework established by Huber and Clandinin (2005); specifically, their concept of ‘personal practical knowledge,’ characterised as ‘experiential, value-laden, purposeful, and practice-oriented.’ The primary objective of this study was to explore the practices and foundational beliefs of three early childhood educators regarding children’s early writing development in preschool classrooms during the year preceding primary school enrolment.

Narrative inquiry was adopted as the theoretical lens to examine pedagogical features, forms, contexts, and beliefs associated with early writing within a single educational setting across three distinct classrooms. The research process was collaborative, with narrative serving as both the method of investigation and the phenomenon under study. This approach facilitated the co-construction of meaning from participants’ lived experiences, thus creating a rich tapestry of interconnected stories that illuminated the complexities of their educational beliefs and practices. Narrating experiences functions as a process of meaning-making, honouring participants’ voices, and enriching our understanding of educator perspectives.

Situating Early Writing in Educational Practice

Writing in the Preschool

Children’s developmental trajectories and learning outcomes are highly contingent on environmental, contextual, and interactional experiences (Bingham et al., 2017), which are situated within broader social and cultural relationships and events (Dyson, 2020). This concept naturally extends to the preschool setting, where children’s educational experiences foster their communicative competence and early writing skills (Hall et al., 2019). From infancy, children begin to develop their understanding of ‘text’ through observation and immersion in family and community-based literacy experiences (Friedrich & Peterson, 2022). As preschool educators collaborate with children and create purposeful opportunities for literacy learning, they exert a direct and significant influence on each child’s writing development through the intentional design of the learning culture and environment.

Each child’s journey as they learn to write is unique, and the timing varies as they gain increasing control over a representational-communicative system (Mackenzie & Scull, 2015). Effectively integrating pedagogical knowledge within established curriculum frameworks is crucial for shaping the planning, implementation, and evaluation of early writing programs in preschools (Clay, 2014). Importantly, educational theory that embodies growth and engagement, embedded in rich learning experiences, has the potential to make a powerful difference in children’s writing trajectories in preschool, school, and beyond (Mackenzie, 2024; Rowe et al., 2022).

Play and Writing

The integral relationship between play and children’s literacy development has been extensively recognised within early childhood educational settings, deeply embedded in educators’ beliefs, and central to curriculum guidelines that shape their practice (Australian Government Department of Education [AGDE], 2022; Rand & Morrow, 2021; Robinson et al., 2018). An additional consideration pertains to the intersection between the symbolic nature of play and writing (Bodrova & Leong, 2009; Vygotsky, 1978). Children frequently incorporate symbolic representations through objects in their play, analogous to the use of marks and symbols to convey intended meanings in the texts they produce (Friedrich & Peterson, 2023). Through play, children can explore and experiment with writing, manipulating, and authenticating written text as a social practice that is imbued with the meaning and purpose within the texts they create (Rand & Morrow, 2021; Rowe et al., 2022). Similarly, children demonstrate their evolving understanding of genre by employing identifiable characteristics of specific text types appropriate to particular purposes, such as composing a medical review for a patient in the ‘preschool hospital’ or designing a menu for the ‘kinder café’ (Scull & O’Grady, 2022). Suppose we conceptualise writing as akin to play, situated within shared cultural understandings that are socially, politically, and historically constructed. In that case, it follows that children’s playful engagement with early writing serves as an opportunity to “express ideas and to think and to learn” (Parr, 2022, p. 133).

Educators can promote children’s early writing endeavours through the co-construction of text embedded within play-based interactions, providing scaffolding for various aspects of the writing process, from rudimentary mark-making to invented or conventional spelling, word formation, sentence construction, punctuation, and capitalisation (Raban, 2024). Gerde and colleagues (2019) assert that children gain significant advantages from engaging in play-based, collaborative interactions with text. These interactions offer meaningful opportunities at both individual and collective levels for children to observe and hear the writing process in action.

The Convergence of Digital Media and Early Literacy Development

The influence of a multimodal environment is substantial, as ‘the tools of new media become a part of childhood’s everyday objects and materials of play’ (Laidlaw & Wong, 2016, p. 30). In an increasingly digitally saturated and globalised world, the pervasive presence of digital technologies diminishes the distinction between non-digital and digital modalities for young learners (Marsh et al., 2019). Children commence preschool education equipped with a virtual toolkit, which enables them to explore a variety of digital technologies for text creation in both innovative and familiar ways (Yelland, 2011). Their enthusiasm for engaging with multimodal texts offers valuable opportunities for early childhood educators to involve preschoolers in literacy development through the creation, sharing, and interpretation of digital texts (Kervin & Mantei, 2024).

The United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child (2021) affirms that educators bear the responsibility of facilitating children’s multimodal text creation processes and advancing young children’s rights, comprehension, and skills necessary for meaningful engagement with the world. Notwithstanding, the extent to which early childhood educators adopt and integrate digital technologies and media into preschool curricula varies significantly (Loyola et al., 2020). The limited implementation by some Australian educators can be attributed to various factors, including, but not limited to, educator confidence, pedagogical knowledge, prevailing attitudes, and broader systemic and cultural influences (Lentz et al., 2014; Thorpe et al., 2015). This is further implied by the presence and accessibility of digital technologies and media in early learning environments.

Educators’ Perspectives on Early Writing Instruction

For several decades, researchers have investigated educators’ beliefs in an attempt to untangle the complex interplay between knowledge and beliefs as well as their subsequent impact on instructional planning, implementation, and evaluation (Besser-Biron et al., 2024; McMullen et al., 2006). Research by Lynch (2009) and Ure and Raban (2001) suggests that preschool educators believe that their interactions and learning experiences have a significant influence on children’s print literacy development. While educators recognise the critical role of their teaching practices in children’s literacy development, this understanding necessitates translation into high-quality, responsive teaching to facilitate children’s literacy and early writing outcomes (Hu et al., 2023).

Bingham and Gerde (2023) conducted a recent study exploring the beliefs and practices of early childhood educators concerning writing. Their research indicated that educators predominantly associate writing with handwriting and print concept skills, while discussions regarding the composing processes are infrequent. They noted that few educators engaged preschool children in writing activities beyond handwriting. In contrast, educators with a more comprehensive understanding of the various elements of early writing tend to provide greater support for children’s conceptual knowledge of writing (Bingham & Gerde, 2023). The disparities in educators’ practices identified in their findings underscore the need for further investigation.

Theoretical Underpinnings of Narrative Inquiry

This study is grounded within an interpretivist-constructivist ontological framework, which posits that “reality is socially constructed” (Mertens, 2012, p. 5). Employing a narrative inquiry methodology, articulated by Connelly and Clandinin in 1990 and inspired by Dewey’s (1938) educational philosophy that ‘life is education’, this research privileges the exploration of ‘lived experience’ (Clandinin, 2016; Clandinin, 2016; Clandinin, Pusher, & Orr et al., 2007). Offering a nuanced exploration of writing instruction in preschools, this paper provides descriptive insights into educators’ beliefs and pedagogical practices through the lens of Huber and Clandinin’s (2005) concept of ‘personal practical knowledge,’ which is defined as “knowledge that is experiential, value-laden, purposeful, and practice-oriented. Personal practical knowledge is considered tentative, subject to change, and transient rather than fixed, objective, and unchanging” (p. 44). Unlike research paradigms that commence with pre-established theories, narrative inquiry begins with participants’ experiences and internal narratives as these are lived and recounted throughout the inquiry process, to which a theoretical lens is later applied to analyse and report the data (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).

True to the tenets of narrative inquiry, this research aims to represent the beliefs that emerge directly from educators themselves, thereby offering an ‘insider’s perspective’ on early writing pedagogies within the preschool setting. These personal narratives, which are often ‘hidden’ or ‘underrepresented,’ have the potential to make meaningful contributions to the academic literature (Pahl, 2014). Additionally, these narratives are embedded within and influenced by the broader political and social discourse, which Schultz and Ravitch (2012) identify as the ‘grand narrative.’ Accordingly, the grand narrative is frequently shaped by individuals or entities that are somewhat removed from the direct experiences of those most impacted. Hence, by emphasising individual educators’ perspectives, this study aims to challenge and refine the prevailing grand narrative (Schultz & Ravitch, 2012).

Method

The Site

This study was conducted at a co-educational preschool situated in inner eastern Melbourne, Australia. The preschool operates within a larger independent school, educating children from preschool through to students in Year 12. During the data collection phase, the preschool program consisted of one class for children aged 3–4 years and three classes for children aged 4–6 years.

The Participants

The participant group comprised three female early childhood educators, each possessing a minimum of 12 years of individual teaching experience and holding a bachelor’s degree or an equivalent qualification. Each educator was responsible for a group of 12–14 preschool children who were enrolled to commence their formal primary education in the subsequent year. Preschool-aged children attended classes four or five days a week, from 8:45 a.m. to 3:15 p.m. throughout the year. The academic year was divided into four terms, each spanning approximately 8–11 weeks in duration.

To preserve the anonymity of educators, pseudonyms (Charlotte, Caitlin, and Estelle) are used. This aligns with ethical considerations in qualitative research, enabling readers to connect with participants’ stories while respecting their privacy. Before the study commenced, the authors obtained human ethics approval in accordance with the host university’s requirements, and all participants provided written informed consent (HREC ID 29718).

Data Collection

The primary researcher undertook a total of 24 visits to the early childhood classrooms throughout the final semester of the preschool year. Based on Clandinin’s (2016) assertion that “Narratives are both lived and told, that is, people live out stories of experience and tell stories of those experiences” (p. 126), the researcher’s sustained immersion within each classroom during the data collection phase was integral to this study’s methodology. This prolonged engagement fostered the development of rapport and trust, thereby enabling a comprehensive understanding of participants’ experiences and the contextual factors that influence early writing.

During the visitation phase, a comprehensive dataset encompassing artefacts, photographic documentation, anecdotal accounts, video recordings, and audio transcripts of both incidental and semi-structured dialogues was systematically collected. This qualitative data established foundational knowledge of the classroom environments and pedagogical approaches, thereby facilitating the customisation of subsequent teacher-researcher interviews through targeted questioning. Each preschool educator participated in a one-hour, audio-recorded, and verbatim transcribed semi-structured interview with the primary researcher, representing the culmination of the data collection process. These interviews were substantially enriched by the pre-existing rapport between educators and the primary researcher, which developed simultaneously with contextual understanding acquired from classroom observations and interactions.

Data Analysis

Initially, the interview data underwent a comprehensive review by the authors, leading to the identification of several recurring themes that exemplify the educators’ beliefs and pedagogical content knowledge of early writing. Subsequently, the interview data were coded using several prompts, thereby illuminating both individual and shared pedagogical beliefs and practices among the educators. Next, the coded interview data were corroborated and synthesised using observational evidence gathered during the classroom visits.

To uphold the principles of narrative inquiry methodology, the authors generated storied narratives that detailed educators’ beliefs and practices through an iterative analytic process. Nevertheless, it is imperative to acknowledge that the “researcher’s influence is unavoidable” (Byrne, 2017, p. 49) and is reflected in the narratives presented in this study. These narratives intentionally seek to represent the myriad voices and interpretations of all individuals involved, acknowledging the subjective lens through which experiences are perceived and articulated. This tiered analytical approach aimed to highlight the intricate processes associated with teaching early writing development in young children during the year preceding their formal primary education, prioritising educator voices within the storied narratives.

Findings: Stories of Experience

The findings from the data analysis revealed a significant alignment among educators within this early childhood setting regarding their theoretical foundations, pedagogical frameworks, and instructional methodologies for early writing. As a result, the data are presented as five shared practice statements that represent the commonalities in educators’ beliefs and ‘personal, practical knowledge’ regarding early writing. These statements have been supported by anecdotes and narrative accounts, which illustrate the participants’ ‘value-laden, purposeful, and practice-oriented’ understanding of early writing.

Writing Rich Play Environments

This research site demonstrated how early writing can be fostered through a print-rich environment and the intentional integration of writing and drawing into playful learning. Across all classrooms, a consistent observation was the deliberate creation of a learning environment where children were given “opportunities to play with text, to play with words … to just have access to all of the tools that they would need… so that it is just everywhere” (Charlotte). The following two narratives serve as examples of how imaginative child-led play can drive authentic writing opportunities.

Charlotte’s classroom was a hive of activity as several children worked collaboratively to transform their dramatic play space into a ‘Smoothie Shop’. Charlotte was quick to respond to the children’s enthusiasm by providing a range of repurposed materials and classroom resources to assist with the installation. In preparation for the official opening, the children independently accessed various stationery materials and writing prompts to create authentic texts, including menus, play money, shop signage and daily specials. From here, the children assumed character roles, including chefs, waitstaff, and customers, actively engaging in peer and educator-supported symbolic representation and text creation throughout the dramatic play activity.

Meanwhile, in Estelle’s classroom, a group of children was seated at the designated ‘writing table,’ diligently designing puppets and discussing an upcoming theatrical production they had initiated. As the children debated ideas for their play, Estelle transcribed and scaffolded the dialogue to support character development, plot progression, and narrative resolution. Motivated by the children’s interest in puppetry and scriptwriting, Estelle decided to invite a professional puppeteer to visit the class, enhancing their understanding of narratives and theatrical performance through puppetry.

These experiential play-based activities demonstrate a deliberate integration of planned and spontaneous writing and drawing activities within early childhood education (Raban, 2024). Both Charlotte and Estelle ensured that writing materials were easily accessible to children, encouraging their authentic engagement in these activities (Gerde et al., 2019; Roskos & Christie, 2001). Moreover, children were able to independently choose writing and drawing tools aligned with their interests and preferences. This autonomy fosters creativity and collaborative participation in drawing and writing across various contexts for specific objectives. Opportunities for teacher scaffolding were maximised, giving children “the tools...and the props and the right prompts” (Charlotte), essential for developing their understanding and competence as authors across different text genres.

Authentic Writing Contexts in Early Childhood Education

Within each classroom, authentic writing contexts offered children opportunities to articulate their thoughts and ideas in a manner that simulates real-life situations. An illustrative example of this was the implementation of ‘individual communication boxes’ in each preschool classroom. These communication boxes, which resembled mailboxes, became a favoured activity, fostering peer-to-peer interactions, collaborative construction, and opportunities for educator scaffolding.

Through the children’s engagement with the communication boxes, Caitlin marvelled at the evolution of children's writing over time, from drawings to letter-like forms to more complex and legible texts. This transformation was driven by the children’s natural desire to transition from oral communication to increasingly sophisticated written forms, from drawings to decipherable texts.

Educators and children alike acknowledged drawing, mark-making, and early writing as vital modes of communication. This authentic ‘real-world’ opportunity for reciprocal communication encouraged independent and co-constructed text composition through an intentional engagement with drawing and early writing. Furthermore, the messages within the communication boxes served as an important means of documentation for self-reflection and educator evaluation.

Acknowledging Children’s Unique Learning Journeys

During the interviews, each educator acknowledged the diversity in early writing dispositions and conceptions of the children within their respective classrooms. This observation was further connected to their reflections on children’s attitudes towards drawing and writing. Excerpts from the interviews highlight the educators’ understanding of the varied learning pathways and progressions of young writers, as demonstrated below:

Effective early writing instruction requires comprehensive support for all learners, regardless of their proficiency level. Understanding each child’s literacy development is crucial to tailoring pedagogical approaches and fostering growth. (Caitlin)

By the end of the year, several initially reluctant children had transformed into confident, independent creators of books and comics... Children often begin drawing and writing privately; however, as they observe their peers, they become more confident and engage in these activities alongside others. (Estelle)

These educator perspectives reinforce the work of Clandinin and Connelly, emphasising the importance of individual narratives, wherein each child’s unique “temporality” and “sociality” influence their learning trajectory within the “place” of the classroom environment.

Intentional Writing Pedagogies

Explicit and intentional teaching opportunities to scaffold early writing were a pedagogical priority across the three classrooms (Bingham et al., 2017). Modelled, shared, guided, and independent writing experiences occurred daily, targeting specific early writing concepts to facilitate the co-construction and construction of texts tailored to specific purposes and audiences (Quinn et al., 2025).

After conducting my classroom observations and interviewing Charlotte, it is clear that she believes her role as an educator is to identify children’s conceptual needs and equip them with the tools to progress. She identifies each child’s zone of proximal development and scaffolds their learning accordingly through her planning, classroom contexts, and interactions with children.

Teacher-facilitated, project-based learning organises educational and communicative experiences around locations, individuals, and topics pertinent to the children (Comber et al., 2007). This pedagogical approach was widely observed throughout the preschool. Initiatives such as the ‘Community Research Project’ provided teacher-supported writing opportunities, both planned and spontaneous, to foster connections across multiple disciplines, domains and their associated texts. One example of this is conveyed below:

In her interview, Caitlin described how the ‘Community Research Project’ provided opportunities for integrating writing skills and making learning visible through sign creation, mapping and digital literacies. She emphasised the importance of honouring children’s voices through a range of multimodalities, enabling them to document and share their knowledge with others.

Digital media and technology were seamlessly integrated into project-based learning, promoting the exploration and creation of digital texts. During the ‘Community Research Project’, digital mapping tools offered the children a platform to explore virtual representations of their local environment and reproduce familiar digital signs and symbols. According to Caitlin, ‘the children quickly recognised digital symbols, demonstrating their ability to zoom in and out of a digital map with ease.’ These educator-supported multiliterate experiences have the potential to cultivate increased engagement among children, facilitating the exploration of a broad spectrum of early writing concepts across various modes, genres, and audiences (Zhang & Quinn, 2020).

A Link Between Literature and Literacy

A profound appreciation for books and reading was intricately woven into the preschool’s classroom culture, highlighting a commitment to the integration of oral language, reading, and writing to support children’s early writing and emergent literacy acquisition (Raban & Scull, 2023). A theme that emerged from the data was the role of model texts and shared reading in promoting language and literacy development, exemplified in the anecdotes below.

When children read along during shared reading experiences, they begin to grasp how books work and develop a love for reading. The pleasure of reading a fun or humorous book and rereading favourites helps children anticipate what comes next because of their familiarity with the story, rather than always predicting. (Charlotte)

Each classroom contained a diverse collection of children’s literature encompassing both fiction and non-fiction, which served as the stimulus for children’s text production.

‘Providing access to books and engaging children in reading-related activities supports their language proficiency and encourages text creation through drawing and early writing.’ (Estelle)

Explicit instruction aimed at concept development, with an emphasis on letter-sound correspondence, vocabulary, and text construction, was grounded in children’s interactions with meaningful texts encountered in the roles of both readers and authors. This pedagogical approach promotes connections between various literate modalities, enabling children to apply and amalgamate their understanding of more complex concepts in both receptive and expressive modes.

Discussion

Writing instruction in the preschool has become an increasingly prominent subject of scholarly enquiry in recent years (Dyson, 2020; Mackenzie, 2024; Pahl, 2014; Raban & Scull, 2023). This study illustrates various pedagogies that early childhood educators may employ to cultivate an immersive preschool environment in which early writing is situated as a genuine, purposeful, and social ‘lived experience’ (Dewey, 1938). Through rich interactions and meaningful experience – conceptualised within Clandinin and Connelly’s ‘three-dimensional narrative inquiry space’ (temporality, sociality, and place) – children are afforded the opportunity to actively participate in the development of early writing skills and knowledge. The findings from this narrative inquiry emphasise several guiding principles for early writing articulated through the perspectives of educators within the dataset, enriching the ongoing discourse of early writing pedagogy.

Educator Expertise as Evidence

The presentation of educators’ stories of practice demonstrates the extent of their ‘personal practical knowledge’ (Huber & Clandinin, 2005), characterising how sharing and reflecting on practice develops an evidence base that can guide and inform the teaching of early writing. This underscores the importance of emphasising educator voice and providing opportunities for ongoing dialogue and professional development tailored to the needs, competencies, and interests of children. Furthermore, educator reflection, problem-solving, and active engagement should also be prioritised to promote educational reform (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). This necessitates cultivating dispositions and attitudes that value reflection and deliberate engagement and prioritise educator judgment (Rickinson et al., 2024).

The Agency and Intent of Children as Writers

The dataset demonstrates children’s autonomous engagement in creating purposeful texts, driven by their interest and curiosity. Educator confidence in children’s intentional text composition offers meaningful opportunities for symbolic representation and communication. A primary goal of guiding reform is to promote children’s agency in selecting tasks or objectives for writing, which is essential as they begin to perceive themselves as authors (Parr, 2022). This aligns with Dewey’s (1938) advocacy for fostering agency and recognising individual pathways. Allowing children to independently direct their efforts in mark-making, drawing, and writing fosters an ‘intentional authenticity that drives meaning-making’ (Dyson, 2020, p. 120).

Diverse Pedagogical Approaches for the Teaching of Early Writing

The educators involved in this narrative inquiry acknowledged the complexity of learning to write as a creative and expansive process. They emphasised the importance of developing authentic pedagogies for writing that accommodate children’s diverse interests, aptitudes and learning styles (Raban, 2024). This approach advocates for rich, meaningful pedagogies that facilitate the acquisition of early writing skills and concepts, affording educators the “freedom to invent, adapt, and modify instruction” (McNaughton, 2002, p. 43).

Limitations of This Study

Through narrative inquiry research, not only a single truth, but multiple truths can coexist. Therefore, the primary aim of this interpretivist approach is to ‘understand the complex world of lived experience from the perspective of those who live it’ (Schwandt, 1998, as cited in McChesney & Aldridge, 2019, p. 227). Consequently, the knowledge obtained through this inquiry provides a contextually grounded understanding of educators’ early writing practices within a single preschool setting (Creswell & Miller, 2000). To gain further insights into educators’ beliefs and practices regarding the creation of productive learning opportunities for children, it is necessary to include a broader range of research sites and expand data collection tools for analysing the texts produced by children. In addition, the role of digital literacy has not been comprehensively examined in this dataset. A more thorough review of educator practices employing narrative-based approaches may detail how digital resources are accessed and utilised to support early writing.

Conclusion

This narrative inquiry examined educators’ pedagogical practices to gain insight into their personal and practical knowledge of writing pedagogies in preschool settings. It specifically investigated how their beliefs and understandings influenced contextual factors and shaped opportunities for children’s writing development. This study provides educators with practical guidance on understanding, critically examining, and reflecting on their beliefs, which are often shaped by a complex interplay of experience, evidence, and reflection (Rickinson et al., 2024). Building on the findings of this small-scale narrative inquiry, we suggest that educators first acknowledge the dispositions, attitudes, and values they bring to writing classrooms. Second, there is a need to value educators’ writing skills and the knowledge and capabilities required to teach writing to young children. Third, optimising the potential of the relationships: the interpersonal processes and connections needed to thoughtfully plan, prepare, and reflect on the teaching of writing. These practices culminate in a stronger emphasis on the wisdom educators bring to the teaching and learning of early writing. This positions educators with greater agency as they become more concerned with understanding the literacy contexts in which all children live and learn. Consequently, they can develop skills and dispositions among young children to successfully create and engage with a range of contemporary and traditional texts.