Emotional Appraisal,Psychological Distance and Construal Level: Implications for Cognitive Reappraisal

Abstract

Construal-level theory emphasizes that representing events at greater spatial, temporal, social, or hypothetical distance results in processing information at high construal levels (more conceptual, abstract). We posit that psychological distance and construal level are somewhat separable constructs, and can have different effects on emotion, and therefore, emotion regulation. We argue that psychological distance influences emotional appraisal, such that increasing distance results in lower emotion intensity, which can be leveraged to down-regulate emotions. However, we consider construal level a mindset, which can occur with either high or low psychological distance. Furthermore, we argue that compared with psychological distance, construal level has a more nuanced relationship with emotion, and changing construal level for the purpose of changing emotion also requires considering the construal level of one's emotion-regulation goals.

Keywords

emotion regulation construal-level theory appraisal cognitive reappraisal

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Ahles

T. A.

Blanchard

E. B.

Leventhal

(1983). Cognitive control of pain: Attention to the sensory aspects of the cold pressor stimulus. Cognitive Therapy Research, 7, 159–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01190070

Åhs

Dunsmoor

J. E.

Zielinski

LaBar

K. S.

(2015). Spatial proximity amplifies valence in emotional memory and defensive approach-avoidance. Neuropsychologia, 70, 476–485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.12.018

Amit

Algom

Trope

(2009). Distance-dependent processing of pictures and words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 138(3), 400–415. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015835

Amit

Algom

Trope

Liberman

(2012). “Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image”: The distance dependence of representation. In Markman

K. D.

Klein

W. M. P.

Suhr

J. A.

(Eds.), Handbook of imagination and mental simulation (pp. 53–68). Psychology Press. 10.4324/9780203809846

Amodio

D. M.

Frith

C. D.

(2006). Meeting of minds: The medial frontal cortex and social cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7(4), 268–277. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1884

Bar-Anan

Liberman

Trope

Algom

(2007). Automatic processing of psychological distance: Evidence from a Stroop task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136(4), 610–622. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.136.4.610

Barner

R. W.

Barner

C. P.

(2011). Mindfulness, openness to experience, and transformational learning. In The Oxford handbook of reciprocal adult development and learning (2nd ed., pp. 347–362). Oxford University Press.

Beck

A. T.

Emery

(1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective. Basic Books.

Beck

J. S

. (2011). Cognitive-behavioral therapy. In Clinical textbook of addictive disorders (pp. 474–501). Guilford Press.

10.

Beer

Keltner

(2004). What is unique about self-conscious emotions? Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 126–129. https://doi.org/10.2307/20447214

11.

Berboth

Morawetz

(2021). Amygdala-prefrontal connectivity during emotion regulation: A meta-analysis of psychophysiological interactions. Neuropsychologia, 153, 107767. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107767

12.

Bernstein

Hadash

Lichtash

Tanay

Shepherd

Fresco

D. M.

(2015). Decentering and related constructs: A critical review and metacognitive processes model. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 599–617. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615594577

13.

Bishop

S. R.

Lau

Shapiro

Carlson

Anderson

N. D.

Carmody

Segal

Z. V.

Abbey

Speca

Velting

Devins

(2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 230–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bph077

14.

Blanchard

D. C.

Griebel

Pobbe

Blanchard

R. J.

(2011). Risk assessment as an evolved threat detection and analysis process. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(4), 991–998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.10.016

15.

Bornstein

Katzir

Simchon

Eyal

(2020). Differential effects of abstract and concrete processing on the reactivity of basic and self-conscious emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2020.1848804

16.

Brickman

Ryan

Wortman

C. B.

(1975). Causal chains: Attribution of responsibility as a function of immediate and prior causes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(6), 1060–1067. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.32.6.1060

17.

Bruehlman-Senecal

Ayduk

(2015). This too shall pass: Temporal distance and the regulation of emotional distress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(2), 356–375. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038324

18.

Buhle

J. T.

Silvers

J. A.

Wager

T. D.

Lopez

Onyemekwu

Kober

Weber

Ochsner

K. N.

(2014). Cognitive reappraisal of emotion: A meta-analysis of human neuroimaging studies. Cerebral Cortex (New York, NY : 1991), 24(11), 2981–2990. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht154

19.

Burgoon

E. M.

Henderson

M. D.

Markman

A. B.

(2013). There are many ways to see the forest for the trees: A tour guide for abstraction. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(5), 501–520. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613497964

20.

Butler

A. C.

Chapman

J. E.

Forman

E. M.

Beck

A. T.

(2006). The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(1), 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2005.07.003

21.

Byrne

R. M.

Girotto

(2009). Cognitive processes in counterfactual thinking. In Markman

K. D.

Klein

W. M. P.

Suhr

J. A.

(Eds.), Handbook of imagination and mental simulation (pp. 151–160). Psychology Press. 10.4324/9780203809846

22.

Carden

Jones

R. J.

Passmore

(2022). In the : A. Journal of Management Education, 46(1), 140–177. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562921990065

23.

Carmi

Kimhi

(2015). Further than the eye can see: Psychological distance and perception of environmental threats. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 21(8), 2239–2257. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2015.1046419

24.

Carmody

Baer

R. A.

Lykins

E. L. B.

Olendzki

(2009). An empirical study of the mechanisms of mindfulness in a mindfulness-based stress reduction program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(6), 613–626. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20579

25.

Chan

E. Y.

Wang

(2019). Mindfulness changes construal level: An experimental investigation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 148(9), 1656. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000654

26.

Chang

H. H.

Tuan Pham

(2013). Affect as a decision-making system of the present. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(1), 42–63. https://doi.org/10.1086/668644

27.

Christian

B. M.

Miles

L. K.

Parkinson

Macrae

C. N.

(2013). Visual perspective and the characteristics of mind wandering. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 699. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00699

28.

Chu

Yang

J. Z.

(2018). Taking climate change here and now–mitigating ideological polarization with psychological distance. Global Environmental Change, 53, 174–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.09.013

29.

Cosmides

Tooby

(2000). Evolutionary psychology and the emotions, M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, eds. Handbook of Emotions, 2(2), 91-115.

30.

Costantini

Ambrosini

Scorolli

Borghi

A. M.

(2011). When objects are close to me: Affordances in the peripersonal space. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18(2), 302–308. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-011-0054-4

31.

Costantini

Ambrosini

Tieri

Sinigaglia

Committeri

(2010). Where does an object trigger an action? An investigation about affordances in space. Experimental Brain Research, 207(1–2), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-010-2435-8

32.

Croxson

P. L.

Walton

M. E.

O’Reilly

J. X.

Behrens

T. E. J.

Rushworth

M. F. S.

(2009). Effort-based cost–benefit valuation and the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 29(14), 4531–4541. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4515-08.2009

33.

D’Argembeau

Van der Linden

(2004). Phenomenal characteristics associated with projecting oneself back into the past and forward into the future: Influence of valence and temporal distance. Consciousness and Cognition, 13(4), 844–858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2004.07.007

34.

Daubenmier

Sze

Kerr

C. E.

Kemeny

M. E.

Mehling

(2013). Follow your breath: Respiratory interoceptive accuracy in experienced meditators. Psychophysiology, 50(8), 777–789. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12057

35.

Davis

J. I.

Gross

J. J.

Ochsner

K. N.

(2011). Psychological distance and emotional experience: What you see is what you get. Emotion, 11(2), 438–444. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021783

36.

De Volder

(1979). Time orientation: A review. Psychologica Belgica, 19(1), 61–79. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.642

37.

Denny

B. T.

Fan

Liu

Ochsner

K. N.

Guerreri

Mayson

S. J.

Rimsky

McMaster

New

A. S.

Goodman

Siever

L. J.

Koenigsberg

H. W.

(2015). Elevated amygdala activity during reappraisal anticipation predicts anxiety in avoidant personality disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 172, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.09.017

38.

Denny

B. T.

Ochsner

K. N.

(2014). Behavioral effects of longitudinal training in cognitive reappraisal. Emotion, 14(2), 425. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035276

39.

Derks

Van Laar

Ellemers

(2016). The queen bee phenomenon: Why women leaders distance themselves from junior women. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 456–469. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035276

40.

Dillon

D. G.

Pizzagalli

D. A.

(2013). Evidence of successful modulation of brain activation and subjective experience during reappraisal of negative emotion in unmedicated depression. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 212(2), 99–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2013.01.001

41.

Dixon

M. L.

Thiruchselvam

Todd

Christoff

(2017). Emotion and the prefrontal cortex: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 143(10), 1033–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000096

42.

Dogan

Erdogan

B. Z.

(2020). Effects of congruence between individuals’ and hotel commercials’ construal levels on purchase intentions. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 29(8), 987–1007. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2020.1759172

43.

Elliot

A. J.

(2006). The hierarchical model of approach-avoidance motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 30(2), 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-006-9028-7

44.

Ellsworth

P. C.

(2013). Appraisal theory: Old and new questions. Emotion Review, 5(2), 125–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912463617

45.

Eyal

Liberman

Trope

(2008). Judging near and distant virtue and vice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(4), 1204–1209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.03.012

46.

Eyal

Liberman

Trope

Walther

(2004). The pros and cons of temporally near and distant action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(6), 781–795. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.6.781

47.

Fiedler

Jung

Wänke

Alexopoulos

(2012). On the relations between distinct aspects of psychological distance: An ecological basis of construal-level theory. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(5), 1014–1021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.03.013

48.

Fishbach

Choi

(2012). When thinking about goals undermines goal pursuit. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 118(2), 99–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2012.02.003

49.

Fishbach

Zhang

(2008). Together or apart: When goals and temptations complement versus compete. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(4), 547–559. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.4.547

50.

Förster

Dannenberg

(2010). GLOMOsys: A systems account of global versus local processing. Psychological Inquiry, 21(3), 175–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2010.487849

51.

Förster

Friedman

R. S.

Liberman

(2004). Temporal construal effects on abstract and concrete thinking: Consequences for insight and creative cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(2), 177–189. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.177

52.

Frederick

Loewenstein

O’Donoghue

(2002). Time discounting and time preference: A critical review. Journal of Economic Literature, 40(2), 351–401. https://doi.org/10.1257/002205102320161311

53.

Freund

A. M.

Hennecke

(2015). On means and ends: The role of goal focus in successful goal pursuit. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24(2), 149–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414559774

54.

Frijda

N. H.

(1988). The laws of emotion. American Psychologist, 43(5), 349–358. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.43.5.349

55.

Frijda

N. H.

(1989). Aesthetic emotions and reality. American Psychologist, 44(12), 1546–1547. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.12.1546

56.

Fujita

(2008). Seeing the forest beyond the trees: A construal-level approach to self-control. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(3), 1475–1496. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00118.x

57.

Fujita

Carnevale

J. J.

(2012). Transcending temptation through abstraction. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(4), 248–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412449169

58.

Fujita

Roberts

J. C.

(2010). Promoting prospective self-control through abstraction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(6), 1049–1054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.05.013

59.

Fujita

Trope

Liberman

Levin-Sagi

(2006). Construal levels and self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(3), 351–367. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.3.351

60.

Garland

E. L.

Farb

N. A.

Goldin

Fredrickson

(2015). Mindfulness broadens awareness and builds eudaimonic meaning: A process model of mindful positive emotion regulation. Psychological Inquiry, 26(4), 293–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2015.1064294

61.

Garland

E. L.

Fredrickson

B. L.

(2019). Positive psychological states in the arc from mindfulness to self-transcendence: Extensions of the mindfulness-to-meaning theory and applications to addiction and chronic pain treatment. Current Opinion in Psychology, 28, 184–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.01.004

62.

Gibson

J. J

. (1977). The theory of affordances. In Shaw

Bransford

(Eds.), Perceiving, acting, and knowing: Toward an ecological psychology (pp. 67–82). Erlbaum.

63.

Gilead

Boccagno

Silverman

Hassin

R. R.

Weber

Ochsner

K. N.

(2016). Self-regulation via neural simulation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(36), 10037. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1600159113

64.

Giuliani

N. R.

Gross

J. J.

(2009). Reappraisal. In Sander

Scherer

K. R.

(Eds.), Oxford companion to the affective sciences (pp. 329). New York Oxford University Press.

65.

Gross

J. J.

(1998). Antecedent-and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 224. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224

66.

Gross

J. J.

(2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781

67.

Gross

J. J.

John

O. P.

(2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348

68.

Gross

J. J.

Thompson

R. A.

(2007). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3–24). The Guilford Press.

69.

Gruber

Hay

A. C.

Gross

J. J.

(2014). Rethinking emotion: Cognitive reappraisal is an effective positive and negative emotion regulation strategy in bipolar disorder. Emotion, 14(2), 388. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035249

70.

Harvey

A. G.

Greenall

(2003). Catastrophic worry in primary insomnia. Journal of Behavioral Therapy and Experimental Psychology, 34(1), 11–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7916(03)00003-X

71.

Heeren

Philippot

(2011). Changes in ruminative thinking mediate the clinical benefits of mindfulness: Preliminary findings. Mindfulness, 2, 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-010-0037-y

72.

Henderson

M. D.

Wakslak

C. J.

Fujita

Rohrbach

(2011). Construal level theory and spatial distance. Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000060

73.

Higgins

E. T.

(2011). Beyond pleasure and pain: How motivation works. Oxford University Press.

74.

Hölzel

B. K.

Lazar

S. W.

Gard

Schuman-Olivier

Vago

D. R.

Ott

(2011). How does mindfulness meditation work? Proposing mechanisms of action from a conceptual and neural perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(6), 537–559. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611419671

75.

Hong

Lee

A. Y.

(2010). Feeling mixed but not torn: The moderating role of construal level in mixed emotions appeals. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(3), 456–472. https://doi.org/10.1086/653492

76.

Huang

Lei

Liu

(2020). Emotional responses and coping strategies in nurses and nursing students during COVID-19 outbreak: A comparative study. PLoS One, 15(8), e0237303. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237303

77.

Jackson

S. A.

Roberts

G. C.

(1992). Positive performance states of athletes: Toward a conceptual understanding of peak performance. The Sport Psychologist, 6(2), 156–171. from https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.6.2.156

78.

Johnson

J. T.

Drobny

(1985). Proximity biases in the attribution of civil liability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(2), 283–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.2.283

79.

Kabat-Zinn

Lipworth

Burney

(1985). The clinical use of mindfulness meditation for the self-regulation of chronic pain. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 8(2), 163–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00845519

80.

Kashdan

T. B.

Rottenberg

(2010). Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 865–878. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.001

81.

Keltner

Gross

J. J.

(1999). Functional accounts of emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 13(5), 467–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379140

82.

Kerr

Sacchet

Lazar

Moore

Jones

(2013). Mindfulness starts with the body: Somatosensory attention and top-down modulation of cortical alpha rhythms in mindfulness meditation. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00012

83.

Kim

Somerville

L. H.

Johnstone

Polis

Alexander

A. L.

Shin

L. M.

Whalen

P. J.

(2004). Contextual modulation of amygdala responsivity to surprised faces. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16(10), 1730–1745. https://doi.org/10.1162/0898929042947865

84.

Kimchi

Palmer

S. E.

(1982). Form and texture in hierarchically constructed patterns. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance, 8(4), 521–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.8.4.521

85.

Kober

Mende-Siedlecki

Kross

E. F.

Weber

Mischel

Hart

C. L.

Ochsner

K. N.

(2010). Prefrontal–striatal pathway underlies cognitive regulation of craving. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(33), 14811–14816. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1007779107

86.

Koenigsberg

H. W.

Fan

Ochsner

K. N.

Liu

Guise

Pizzarello

Siever

L. J.

(2010). Neural correlates of using distancing to regulate emotional responses to social situations. Neuropsychologia, 48(6), 1813–1822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.03.002

87.

Kogut

Ritov

Rubaltelli

Liberman

(2018). How far is the suffering? The role of psychological distance and victims’ identifiability in donation decisions. Judgment and Decision Making, 13(5), 458–466. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1930297500008731

88.

Kralik

J. D.

Sampson

W. W.

(2012). A fruit in hand is worth many more in the bush: Steep spatial discounting by free-ranging rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Behavioural Processes, 89(3), 197–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2011.09.010

89.

Kross

Ayduk

(2008). Facilitating adaptive emotional analysis: Distinguishing distanced-analysis of depressive experiences from immersed-analysis and distraction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(7), 924–938. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208315938

90.

Kross

Ayduk

(2017). Self-distancing: Theory, research, and current directions. In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 55, pp. 81–136). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2016.10.002

91.

Kross

Ayduk

Mischel

(2005). When asking “why” does not hurt distinguishing rumination from reflective processing of negative emotions. Psychological Science, 16(9), 709–715. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01600.x

92.

Lang

P. J.

(1977). Imagery in therapy: An information processing analysis of fear. Behavior Therapy, 8(5), 862–886. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7894(77)80157-3

93.

Lazarus

R. S.

(1991). Cognition and motivation in emotion. American Psychologist, 46(4), 352–367. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.46.4.352

94.

Lazarus

R. S.

Alfert

(1964). Short-circuiting of threat by experimentally altering cognitive appraisal. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 69(2), 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0044635

95.

Lazarus

R. S.

Smith

C. A.

(1988). Knowledge and appraisal in the cognition—emotion relationship. Cognition & Emotion, 2(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699938808412701

96.

Lazerus

Ingbretsen

Z. A.

Stolier

R. M.

Freeman

J. B.

Cikara

(2016). Positivity bias in judging ingroup members’ emotional expressions. Emotion, 16(8), 1117–1125. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000227

97.

Ledgerwood

Trope

Liberman

(2015). Construal level theory and regulatory scope. In Emerging trends in the social and behavioral sciences (pp. 1–10). American Cancer Society. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0052

98.

Levenson

R. W

. (1994). Human emotion: A functional view. In Ekman

Davidson

R. J.

(Eds.), The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions (pp. 123–126). Oxford University Press.

99.

Levenson

R. W.

(1999). The intrapersonal functions of emotion. Cognition & Emotion, 13(5), 481–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379159

100.

Lewin

(1951). Field theory in social science: Selected theoretical papers (Dorwin Cartwright). Harper & Brothers.

101.

Dong

Wang

Zhang

Han

Lin

(2019). Orderliness/disorderliness is mentally associated with construal level and psychological distance. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2521. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02521

102.

Libby

L. K.

Eibach

R. P.

(2011). Visual perspective in mental imagery : A representational tool that functions in judgment, emotion, and self-insight. In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 44, pp. 185–245). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385522-0.00004-4

103.

Liberman

Förster

(2009). Distancing from experienced self: How global-versus-local perception affects estimation of psychological distance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(2), 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015671

104.

Liberman

Sagristano

M. D.

Trope

(2002). The effect of temporal distance on level of mental construal. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(6), 523–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00535-8

105.

Liberman

Trope

(2008). The psychology of transcending the here and now. Science, 322(5905), 1201–1205. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1161958

106.

Liberman

Trope

(2014). Traversing psychological distance. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(7), 364–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2014.03.001

107.

Lohr

B. A.

Scogin

(1998). Effects of self-administered visuo-motor behavioral rehearsal on sport performance of collegiate athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 21(2), 206–218 https://ezproxy.kcls.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/effects-self-administered-visuo-motor-behavioral/docview/215871661/se-2?accountid=46.

108.

Löw

Lang

P. J.

Smith

J. C.

Bradley

M. M.

(2008). Both predator and prey: Emotional arousal in threat and reward. Psychological Science, 19(9), 865–873. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02170.x

109.

Löw

Weymar

Hamm

A. O.

(2015). When threat is near, get out of here: Dynamics of defensive behavior during freezing and active avoidance. Psychological Science, 26(11), 1706–1716. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615597332

110.

Lundberg

Ekman

(1973). Individual functions of subjective time distance and emotional reaction. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 14(1), 29–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.1973.tb00087.x

111.

Lundberg

von WRIGHT

J. M.

Frankenhaeuser

OLSON

U. J.

(1975). Involvement in four future events as a function of temporal distance. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 16(1), 2–6. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.1975.tb00155.x

112.

Lyons

K. E.

Zelazo

P. D.

(2011). Monitoring, metacognition, and executive function: Elucidating the role of self-reflection in the development of self-regulation. Advances in and, 40, 379–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386491-8.00010-4

113.

Lyubomirsky

Sousa

Dickerhoof

(2006). The costs and benefits of writing, talking, and thinking about life's triumphs and defeats. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(4), 692. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.692

114.

Maaravi

Heller

(2020). Not all worries were created equal: The case of COVID-19 anxiety. Public Health, 185, 243–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.06.032

115.

Maglio

S. J.

(2020). Psychological distance in consumer psychology: Consequences and antecedents. Consumer Psychology Review, 3(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1002/arcp.1057

116.

Maglio

S. J.

Trope

Liberman

(2013). The common currency of psychological distance. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(4), 278–282. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413480172

117.

Marigold

D. C.

Holmes

J. G.

Ross

(2007). More than words: Reframing compliments from romantic partners fosters security in low self-esteem individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(2), 232. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.232

118.

McRae

Ciesielski

Gross

J. J.

(2012). Unpacking cognitive reappraisal: Goals, tactics, and outcomes. Emotion, 12(2), 250–255. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026351

119.

McRae

Gross

J. J.

(2020). Emotion regulation. Emotion, 20(1), 1–9. APA PsycArticles. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000703

120.

McRae

Misra

Prasad

A. K.

Pereira

S. C.

Gross

J. J.

(2012). Bottom-up and top-down emotion generation: Implications for emotion regulation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(3), 253–262. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsq103

121.

Mechias

M.-L.

Etkin

Kalisch

(2010). A meta-analysis of instructed fear studies: Implications for conscious appraisal of threat. Neuroimage, 49(2), 1760–1768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.09.040

122.

Miller

D. T.

Porter

C. A.

(1980). Effects of temporal perspective on the attribution process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(4), 532–541. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.39.4.532

123.

Mischel

Moore

(1973). Effects of attention to symbolically presented rewards on self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(2), 172–179. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0035716

124.

Mocaiber

Pereira

M. G.

Erthal

F. S.

Machado-Pinheiro

David

I. A.

Cagy

Volchan

de Oliveira

(2010). Fact or fiction? An event-related potential study of implicit emotion regulation. Neuroscience Letters, 476(2), 84–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2010.04.008

125.

Moore

Mischel

Zeiss

(1976). Comparative effects of the reward stimulus and its cognitive representation in voluntary delay. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(3), 419–424. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.34.3.419

126.

Moors

(2013). On the causal role of appraisal in emotion. Emotion Review, 5(2), 132–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912463601

127.

Moors

Ellsworth

P. C.

Scherer

K. R.

Frijda

N. H.

(2013). Appraisal theories of emotion: State of the art and future development. Emotion Review, 5(2), 119–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073912468165

128.

Moran

Bornstein

Eyal

(2019). The level of construal involved in the elicitation of core versus moral disgust. Emotion. https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000709

129.

Moulton

S. T.

Kosslyn

S. M.

(2009). Imagining predictions: Mental imagery as mental emulation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1521), 1273–1280. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0314

130.

Mrkva

Travers

Van Boven

(2018). Simulational fluency reduces feelings of psychological distance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(3), 354. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000408

131.

Mühlberger

Neumann

Wieser

M. J.

Pauli

(2008). The impact of changes in spatial distance on emotional responses. Emotion, 8(2), 192–198. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.8.2.192

132.

Navon

(1977). Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in visual perception. Cognitive Psychology, 9(3), 353–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(77)90012-3

133.

Nguyen

Carnevale

J. J.

Scholer

A. A.

Miele

D. B.

Fujita

(2019). Metamotivational knowledge of the role of high-level and low-level construal in goal-relevant task performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 117(5), 876. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000166

134.

Ochsner

K. N.

Gross

J. J.

(2008). Cognitive emotion regulation: Insights from social cognitive and affective neuroscience. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(2), 153–158. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00566.x

135.

Ochsner

K. N.

Ray

R. R.

Hughes

McRae

Cooper

J. C.

Weber

Gabrieli

J. D. E.

Gross

J. J.

(2009). Bottom-up and top-down processes in emotion generation: Common and distinct neural mechanisms. Psychological Science, 20(11), 1322–1331. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02459.x

136.

Ochsner

K. N.

Silvers

J. A.

Buhle

J. T.

(2012). Functional imaging studies of emotion regulation: A synthetic review and evolving model of the cognitive control of emotion. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1251(1), E1–E24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06751.x

137.

Ordóñez

L. D.

Benson

III Pittarello

(2015). Time-pressure perception and decision making. In The Wiley Blackwell handbook of judgment and decision making (pp. 517–542). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118468333.ch18

138.

Otto

Misra

Prasad

McRae

(2014). Functional overlap of top-down emotion regulation and generation: An fMRI study identifying common neural substrates between cognitive reappraisal and cognitively generated emotions. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 14(3), 923–938. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-013-0240-0

139.

Ozkara

B. Y.

Dogan

(2020). Is either peripheral detail (s) or central feature (s) easy to mentally process?: EEG examination of mental workload based on construal level theory. Current Psychology, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01036-0

140.

Paquette

(2015). Real happiness: Proven paths for contentment, peace & well-being. PESI Publishing & Media.

141.

Parkinson

Liu

Wheatley

(2014). A common cortical metric for spatial, temporal, and social distance. The Journal of Neuroscience, 34(5), 1979–1987. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2159-13.2014

142.

Paschke

L. M.

Dörfel

Steimke

Trempler

Magrabi

Ludwig

V. U.

Schubert

Stelzel

Walter

(2016). Individual differences in self-reported self-control predict successful emotion regulation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11(8), 1193–1204. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw036

143.

Paulus

Wentura

(2013). Threatening joy: Approach and avoidance reactions to emotions are influenced by the group membership of the expresser. Cognition & Emotion, 28(4), 656–677. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.849659

144.

Peer

Salomon

Goldberg

Blanke

Arzy

(2015). Brain system for mental orientation in space, time, and person. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(35), 11072–11077. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1504242112

145.

Perrings

Hannon

(2001). An introduction to spatial discounting. Journal of Regional Science, 41(1), 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4146.00205

146.

Philippot

Baeyens

Douilliez

(2006). Specifying emotional information: Regulation of emotional intensity via executive processes. Emotion, 6(4), 560. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.6.4.560

147.

Philippot

Schaefer

Herbette

(2003). Consequences of specific processing of emotional information: Impact of general versus specific autobiographical memory priming on emotion elicitation. Emotion, 3(3), 270. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.3.3.270

148.

Pinazo

Breso

(2017). The effects of a self-observation-based meditation intervention on acceptance or rejection of the other. International Journal of Psychology, 52(4), 300–307. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12223

149.

Pitskel

N. B.

Bolling

D. Z.

Kaiser

M. D.

Crowley

M. J.

Pelphrey

K. A.

(2011). How grossed out are you? The neural bases of emotion regulation form childhood to adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 1(3), 324–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2011.03.004

150.

Powers

J. P.

Graner

J. L.

LaBar

K. S.

(2020). Multivariate patterns of posterior cortical activity differentiate forms of emotional distancing. Cerebral Cortex, 30(5), 2766–2776. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhz273

151.

Powers

J. P.

Labar

K. S.

(2019). Regulating emotion through distancing: A taxonomy, neurocognitive model, and supporting meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 96, 155–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.04.023

152.

Quartana

P. J.

Campbell

C. M.

Edwards

R. R.

(2009). Pain catastrophizing: A critical review. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 9(5), 745–758. https://doi.org/10.1586/ern.09.34

153.

Reczek

R. W.

Trudel

White

(2018). Focusing on the forest or the trees: How abstract versus concrete construal level predicts responses to eco-friendly products. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 57, 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.06.003

154.

Reisberg

Heuer

Mclean

O’shaughnessy

(1988). The quantity, not the quality, of affect predicts memory vividness. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 26(2), 100–103. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03334873

155.

Richards

J. M.

Gross

J. J.

(2000). Emotion regulation and memory: The cognitive costs of keeping one's cool. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(3), 410. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.3.410

156.

Rim

Amit

Fujita

Trope

Halbeisen

Algom

(2015). How words transcend and pictures immerse. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(2), 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550614548728

157.

Rim

Hansen

Trope

(2013). What happens why? Psychological distance and focusing on causes versus consequences of events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(3), 457–472. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031024

158.

Rood

Roelofs

Bögels

S. M.

Arntz

(2012). The effects of experimentally induced rumination, positive reappraisal, acceptance, and distancing when thinking about a stressful event on affect states in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(1), 73–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-011-9544-0

159.

Roseman

I. J.

(1984). Cognitive determinants of emotion: A structural theory. Review of personality & social psychology, 5, 11–36.

160.

Roseman

I. J.

Smith

C. A.

(2001). Appraisal theory. In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, Methods, Research (pp. 3–19).

161.

Rubin

D. C.

Berntsen

Deffler

S. A.

Brodar

(2018). Self-narrative focus in autobiographical events: The effect of time, emotion, and individual differences. Memory & Cognition, 47(1), 63–75. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-018-0850-4

162.

Scherer

K. R.

(1984). On the nature and function of emotion: A component process approach. In Scherer

K. R.

Ekman

(Eds.), Approaches to emotion (pp. 293–317). Psychology Press. 10.4324/9781315798806

163.

Scherer

K. R.

(2009). The dynamic architecture of emotion: Evidence for the component process model. Cognition & Emotion, 23(7), 1307–1351. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930902928969

164.

Scherer

K. R.

Ekman

(eds) (2014). Approaches To Emotion. Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315798806

165.

Schmeichel

B. J.

Vohs

K. D.

Duke

S. C.

(2010). Self-control at high and low levels of mental construal. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(2), 182–189. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550610385955

166.

Schwartz

Eyal

Tamir

(2018). Emotions and the big picture: The effects of construal level on emotional preferences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 78, 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2018.05.005

167.

Shapiro

S. L.

Carlson

L. E.

Astin

J. A.

Freedman

(2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(3), 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20237

168.

Shipp

A. J.

Aeon

. (2019). Temporal focus: Thinking about the past, present, and future. Current Opinion in Psychology, 26, 37–43. 10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.04.005

169.

Smith

C. A.

Ellsworth

P. C.

(1985). Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(4), 813. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.4.813

170.

Smith

C. A.

Lazarus

R. S.

(1993). Appraisal components, core relational themes, and the emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 7(3–4), 233–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699939308409189

171.

Sokol-Hessner

Hsu

Curley

N. G.

Delgado

M. R.

Camerer

C. F.

Phelps

E. A.

(2009). Thinking like a trader selectively reduces individuals’ loss aversion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(13), 5035–5040. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0806761106

172.

Speisman

J. C.

Lazarus

R. S.

Mordkoff

Davison

(1964). Experimental reduction of stress based on ego-defense theory. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68(4), 367–380. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0048936

173.

Strack

Schwarz

Gschneidinger

(1985). Happiness and reminiscing: The role of time perspective, affect, and mode of thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(6), 1460–1469. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.49.6.1460

174.

Sznycer

(2019). Forms and functions of the self-conscious emotions. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 23(2), 143–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.11.007

175.

Talarico

J. M.

Rubin

D. C

. (2007). Flashbulb memories are special after all; in phenomenology, not accuracy. Applied Cognitive Psychology: The Official Journal of the Society for Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 21(5), 557–578. 10.1002/acp.1293

176.

Tamir

Chiu

C.-Y.

Gross

J. J.

(2007). Business or pleasure? Utilitarian versus hedonic considerations in emotion regulation. Emotion, 7(3), 546. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.3.546

177.

Tamir

Mitchell

Gross

J. J.

(2008). Hedonic and instrumental motives in anger regulation. Psychological Science, 19(4), 324–328. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02088.x

178.

Tausen

B. M.

Carpenter

Macrae

C. N.

(2019). Just another variant of psychological distance? The role of visual perspective in mental simulation. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000210

179.

Teasdale

J. D.

Howard

R. J.

Cox

S. G.

Brammer

M. J.

Williams

S. C.

Checkley

S. A.

(1999). Functional MRI study of the cognitive generation of affect. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(2), 209–215. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.156.2.209

180.

Tracy

J. L.

Robins

R. W.

(2004). Putting the self into self-conscious emotions: A theoretical model. Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1502_01

181.

Trope

Ledgerwood

Liberman

Fujita

(2020). Regulatory scope and its mental and social supports. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(2), 204–224. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620950691

182.

Trope, & Liberman

(2003). Temporal construal. Psychological Review, 110(3), 403. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.3.403

183.

Trope

Liberman

(2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117(2), 440–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018963

184.

Trope

Liberman

Wakslack

(2007). Construal levels and psychological distance: Effects on representation, prediction, evaluation, and behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17(2), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70013-X

185.

Underwood

Moore

(1982). Perspective-taking and altruism. Psychological Bulletin, 91(1), 143–173. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.91.1.143

186.

Vago

David

(2012). Self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-transcendence (S-ART): A framework for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2012.00296

187.

Vallacher

R. R.

Wegner

D. M.

(1989). Levels of personal agency: Individual variation in action identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(4), 660–671. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.4.660

188.

Van Boven

Caruso

E. M.

(2015). The tripartite foundations of temporal psychological distance: Metaphors, ecology, and teleology. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(11), 593–605. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12207

189.

Van Boven

Kane

McGraw

A. P.

Dale

(2010). Feeling close: Emotional intensity reduces perceived psychological distance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(6), 872–885. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019262

190.

Van Boven

White

Huber

(2009). Immediacy bias in emotion perception: Current emotions seem more intense than previous emotions. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 138(3), 368–382. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016074

191.

vanDellen

Sanders

Fitzsimons

G. M.

(2012). When local processing increases the appeal of healthy options. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(5), 1100–1105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.03.010

192.

van der Schalk

Fischer

Doosje

Wigboldus

Hawk

Rotteveel

Hess

(2011). Convergent and divergent responses to emotional displays of ingroup and outgroup. Emotion, 11(2), 286–298. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022582

193.

van Dijk

Zeelenberg

(2005). On the psychology of ‘if only’: Regret and the comparison between factual and counterfactual outcomes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 97(2), 152–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.04.001

194.

Vrtička

Sander

Vuilleumier

(2011). Effects of emotion regulation strategy on brain responses to the valence and social content of visual scenes. Neuropsychologia, 49(5), 1067–1082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.02.020

195.

Wakslak

C. J.

Trope

Liberman

Alony

(2006). Seeing the forest when entry is unlikely: Probability and the mental representation of events. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 135(4), 641–653. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.135.4.641

196.

Watkins

Moberly

N. J.

Moulds

M. L.

(2008). Processing mode causally influences emotional reactivity: Distinct effects of abstract versus concrete construal on emotional response. Emotion, 8(3), 364. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.8.3.364

197.

Webb

T. L.

Miles

Sheeran

(2012). Dealing with feeling: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 138(4), 775–808. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027600

198.

Weber

(1993). Human Relations, 46(4), 435–463. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872679304600402

199.

Williams

L. E.

Stein

Galguera

(2014). The distinct affective consequences of psychological distance and construal level. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(6), 1123–1138. https://doi.org/10.1086/674212

200.

Wilson-Mendenhall

C. D.

Barrett

L. F.

Simmons

W. K.

Barsalou

L. W.

(2011). Grounding emotion in situated conceptualization. Neuropsychologia, 49(5), 1105–1127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.12.032

201.

Wong

V. C.

Wyer

R. S.

(2016). Mental traveling along psychological distances: The effects of cultural syndromes, perspective flexibility, and construal level. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(1), 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000048

202.

Wood

J. V.

Dodgson

P. G.

(2014). When is self-focused attention an adaptive coping response?: Rumination and overgeneralization versus compensation. In Cognitive (pp. 231–260). Routledge.

203.

Yan

Sengupta

Hong

(2016). Why does psychological distance influence construal level? The role of processing mode: Table 1. Journal of Consumer Research, 43(4), 598–613. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucw045

204.

Zimbardo

P. G.

Boyd

J. N.

(2015). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. In Time perspective theory; review, research and application (pp. 17–55). Springer.