Bronchial asthma as such exists because airway smooth muscle (ASM) contracts excessively in response to various stimuli. After several decades during which research was mainly focused on airway inflammation, increasing attention is now being paid to a possible abnormal behaviour of ASM. Thus, ASM is regarded as a major target for anti-asthma treatments. This review first describes the mechanisms of ASM contraction and airway hyperresponsiveness, through cellular, animal and human models. The developments of new drugs targeting extra and/or intracellular pathway of ASM contraction are discussed.
Ammit, A.J., Hastie, A.T., Edsall, L.C., Hoffman, R.K., Amrani, Y., Krymskaya, V.P. et al. (2001) Sphingosine 1-phosphate modulates human airway smooth muscle cell functions that promote inflammation and airway remodeling in asthma. FASEB J15: 1212-1214.
2.
Ammit, A.J., Hoffman, R.K., Amrani, Y., Lazaar, A.L., Hay, D.W.P., Torphy, T.J. et al. (2000) TNFα-induced secretion of RANTES and IL-6 from human airway smooth muscle cells: modulation by cAMP. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol23: 794-802.
3.
Amrani,Y. and Panettieri, R.A. (1998) Cytokines induce airway smooth muscle cell hyperresponsiveness to contractile agonists. Thorax53: 713-716.
4.
Barnes, P.J. (1985) Clinical studies with calcium antagonists in asthma . Br J Clin Pharmacol20: 289S-298S.
5.
Bauer, K., Dietersdorfer, F., Sertl, K., Kaik, B. and Kaik, G. (1993). Pharmacodynamic effects of inhaled dry powder formulations of fenoterol and colforsin in asthma. Clin Pharmacol Ther53: 76-83.
6.
Berridge, M.J., and Irvine, R.F. (1984) Inositol trisphosphate, a novel second messenger in cellular signal transduction. Nature312: 315-321.
7.
Billington, C.K., Le Jeune, I.R., Young, K.W. and Hall, I.P. (2008) A major functional role for phosphodiesterase 4D5 in human airway smooth muscle cells. Am J Respir Crit Care Med38: 1-7.
8.
Black, J.L., Marthan, R., Armour, C.L. and Johnson, P.R. (1989) Sensitization alters contractile responses and calcium influx in human airway smooth muscle. J Allergy Clin Immunol84: 440-447.
9.
Borger, P., Tamm, M., Black, J.L. and Roth, M. (2006) Asthma: is it due to an abnormal airway smooth muscle cell? Am J Respir Crit Care Med174: 367-372.
10.
Brichetto, L., Milanese, M., Song, P., Patrone, M., Crimi, E., Reader, K. and Brusasco, V. (2003a) Beclomethasone rapidly ablates allergen-induced beta 2-adrenoceptor pathway dysfunction in human isolated bronchi. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol284: L133-L139.
11.
Brichetto, L., Song, P., Crimi, E., Rehder, K. and Brusasco, V. (2003b) Modulation of cholinergic responsiveness through the [beta]-adrenoceptor signal transmission pathway in bovine trachealis. J Appl Physiol95: 735-741.
12.
Buchheit, K.H., Manley, P.W., Quast, U., Russ, U., Mazzoni, L. and Fozard, J.R. (2002) KCO912: a potent and selective opener of ATP-dependent potassium (K(ATP)) channels which suppresses airways hyperreactivity at doses devoid of cardiovascular effects. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol365: 220-230.
13.
Burgess, J.K., Oliver, B.G., Poniris, M.H., Ge, Q., Boustany, S., Cox, N. et al. (2006) A phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitor inhibits matrix protein deposition in airways in vitro. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 118: 649-657.
14.
Chung, K.F., Patel, H.J., Fadlon, E.J., Rousell, J., Haddad, E.-B., Jose, P.J. et al. (1999) Induction of eotaxin expression and release from human airway smooth muscle cells by IL-1β and TNFα: effects of IL-10 and corticosteroids. Br J Pharmacol127: 1145-1150.
15.
Cloutier, M., Campbell, S., Basora, N., Proteau, S., Payet, M.D. and Rousseau, E. (2003) 20-HETE inotropic effects involve the activation of a non-selective cationic current in airway smooth muscle. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol285: L560-L568.
16.
Cook, N.S. and Chapman, I.D. (1993) Therapeutic potential of potassium channel openers in peripheral vascular disease and asthma. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther7: 555-563.
17.
Corteling, R.L., Li, S., Giddings, J., Westwick, J., Poll, C. and Hall, I.P. (2004) Expression of transient receptor potential C6 and related transient receptor potential family members in human airway smooth muscle and lung tissue, Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol30: 145-154.
18.
Cox, G., Miller, J.D., McWilliams, A., FitzGerald, J.M. and Lam, S. (2006) Bronchial Thermoplasty for Asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med173: 965-969.
19.
Crimi, E., Spanevello, A., Neri, M., Ind, P.W., Rossi, G.A. and Brusasco, V. (1998) Dissociation between airway inflammation and airway hyperresponsiveness in allergic asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med157: 4-9.
20.
De Gouw, H.W., Marshall-Partridge, S.J.,Van Der Veen, H., Van Den Aardweg, J.G., Hiemstra, P.S. and Sterk, P.J. (2001) Role of nitric oxide in the airway response to exercise in healthy and asthmatic subjects. J Appl Physiol90: 586-592.
21.
Deng,Y.M., Xie, Q.M., Tang, H.F., Sun, J.G., Deng, J.F., Chen, J.Q. et al. (2006) Effects of ciclamilast, a new PDE 4 PDE4 inhibitor, on airway hyperresponsiveness, PDE4D expression and airway inflammation in a murine model of asthma. Eur J Pharmacol547: 125-135.
22.
Deshpande, D.A. and Penn, R.B. (2006) Targeting G protein-coupled receptor signaling in asthma. Cell Signal18: 2105-2120.
23.
Deshpande, D.A., Walseth, T.F., Panettieri, R.A. and Kannan, M.S. (2003) CD38/cyclic ADP-ribose-mediated Ca2+ signaling contributes to airway smooth muscle hyper-responsiveness. FASEB J17: 452-454.
24.
DiCosmo, B.F., Geba, G.P., Picarella, D., Elias, J.A., Rankin, J.A., Stripp, B.R. et al. (1994) Airway epithelial cell expression of interleukin-6 in transgenic mice. Uncoupling of airway inflammation and bronchial hyperreactivity . J Clin Invest94: 2028-2035.
25.
Dietrich, A., Mederos,Y., Schnitzler, M., Gollasch, M., Gross, V., Storch, U. et al. (2005) Increased vascular smooth muscle contractility in TRPC6-/- mice. Mol Cell Biol25: 6980-6989.
26.
Dunlop, L.S. and Smith, A.P. (1975) Reduction of antigen-induced contraction of sensitized human bronchus in vitro by indomethacin. Br J Pharmacol54: 495-497.
27.
Ebina, M., Takahashi, T., Chiba,T. and Motomiya, M. (1993) Cellular hypertrophy and hyperplasia of ASM underlying bronchial asthma. A 3-D morphometric study, Am Rev Respir Dis148: 720-726.
28.
Eichhorn, B. and Dobrev, D. (2007) Vascular large conductance calcium-activated potassium channels: functional role and therapeutic potential. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol376: 145-155.
29.
Elias, J.A., Wu,Y., Zheng, T. and Panettieri Jr, R.A. (1997) Cytokine- and virus-stimulated airway smooth muscle cells produce IL-11 and other IL-6-type cytokines. Am J Physiol273: L648-L655.
30.
Faraci, F.M. and Heistad, D.D. (1998) Regulation of the cerebral circulation: role of endothelium and potassium channels. Physiological Reviews78: 53-97.
31.
Faurschou, P., Mikkelsen, K.L., Steffensen, I. and Franke, B. (1994) The lack of bronchodilator effect and the short-term safety of cumulative single doses of an inhaled potassium channel opener (bimakalim) in adult patients with mild to moderate bronchial asthma. Pulm Pharmacol7: 293-297.
32.
Feng, J., Ito, M., Ichikawa, K., Isaka, N., Nishikawa, M., Hartshorne, D.J. and Nakano, T. (1999) Inhibitory phosphorylation site for Rho-associated kinase on smooth muscle myosin phosphatase. J Biol Chem274: 37385-37390.
33.
Fernandes, D., Guida, E., Koutsoubos, V., Harris, T., Vadiveloo, P., Wilson, J.W. et al. (1999) Glucocorticoids inhibit proliferation, cyclin D1 expression, and retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation, but not activity of the extracellular-regulated kinases in human cultured airway smooth muscle . Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol21: 77-88.
34.
Fish, J.E. (1984) Calcium channel antagonists in the treatment of asthma. J Asthma21: 407-418.
35.
Fleckenstein, A., Frey, M. and Fleckenstein-Grun, G. (1986) Antihypertensive and arterial anticalcinotic effects of calcium antagonists. American Journal of Cardiology57: 1D-10D.
36.
Fryer, A.D. and Jacoby, D.B. (1993) Effect of inflammatory cell mediators on M2 muscarinic receptors in the lungs. Life Sci52: 529-536.
37.
Ghaffar, O., Hamid, Q., Renzi, P.M., Allahkverdi, Z., Molet, S., Hogg, J.C. et al. (1999) Constitutive and cytokine-stimulated expression of eotaxin by human airway smooth muscle cells. Am J Respir Crit Care Med159: 1933-1942.
38.
Gordon, E.H., Wong, S.C. and Klaustermeyer, W.B. (1987) Comparison of nifedipine with a new calcium channel blocker, flordipine, in exercise-induced asthma . J Asthma24: 261-265.
39.
Gosling, M., Poll, C. and Li, S. (2005) TRP channels in airway smooth muscle as therapeutic targets. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol371: 277-284.
40.
Hakonarson, H., Halapi, E., Whelan, R., Gulcher, J., Stefansson, K. and Grunstein, M.M. (2001) Association between IL-1beta/TNF-alpha-induced glucocorticoid-sensitive changes in multiple gene expression and altered responsiveness in airway smooth muscle. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol25: 761-771.
41.
Hakonarson, H., Herick, D.J. and Grustein, M.M. (1995) Mechanism of impaired beta-adrenoceptor responsiveness in atopic sensitized airway smooth muscle. Am J Physiol269: L645-L652.
42.
Hakonarson, H., Maskeri, N., Carter, C. and Grunstein, M.M. (1999) Regulation of TH1- and TH2-type cytokine expression and action in atopic asthmatic sensitized airway smooth muscle. J Clin Invest103: 1077-1087.
43.
Hakonarson, H., Maskeri, N., Carter, C., Hodinka, R., Campbell, D. and Grunstein, M.M. (1998) Mechanism of rhinovirus-induced changes in airway smooth muscle responsiveness. J Clin Invest102: 1732-1741.
44.
Hedges, J.C., Singer, C.A. and Gerthoffer, W.T. (2000) Mitogen-activated protein kinases regulate cytokine gene expression in human airway myocytes. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol23: 86-94.
45.
Hirota, S., Trimble, N., Pertens, E. and Janssen, L.J. (2006) Intracellular Cl- fluxes play a novel role in Ca2+ handling in airway smooth muscle. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol290: L1146-1153.
46.
Hoppe, M., Harman, E. and Hendeles, L. (1992) The effect of inhaled gallopamil, a potent calcium channel blocker, on the late-phase response in subjects with allergic asthma . J Allergy Clin Immunol89: 688-695.
47.
Ichinose, M., Miura, M., Tomaki, M., Oyake, T., Kageyama, N., Ikarashi,Y. et al. (1996 ) Incubation with IgE increases cholinergic neurotransmission in human airways in vitro. Am J Respir Crit Care Med154: 1272-1276.
48.
Ito, K., Caramori, G. and Adcock, I.M. (2007) Therapeutic potential of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors in inflammatory respiratory disease. J Pharmacol Exp Ther321: 1-8.
49.
Janssen, L.J., Tazzeo, T. and Zuo, J. (2004) Enhanced myosin phosphatase and Ca2+-uptake mediate adrenergic relaxation of airway smooth muscle. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol30: 548-554.
50.
Jia,Y., Wang, X., Varty, L., Rizzo, C.A.,Yang, R., Correll, C.C. et al. (2004) Functional TRPV4 channels are expressed in human airway smooth muscle cells, Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol287: L272-L278.
51.
Jude, J.A., Wylam, M.E., Walseth, T.F. and Kannan, M.S. (2008) Calcium signaling in airway smooth muscle. Proc Am Thorac Soc5: 15-22.
52.
Kannan, M.S., Prakash,Y.S., Brenner, T., Mickelson, J.R. and Sieck, G.C. (1997) Role of ryanodine receptor channels in Ca2+ oscillations of porcine tracheal smooth muscle. Am J Physiol272: L659-L664.
53.
Kidney, J.C., Fuller, R.W., Worsdell, Y.M., Lavender, E.A., Chung, K.F. and Barnes, P.J. (1993) Effect of an oral potassium channel activator, BRL 38227, on airway function and responsiveness in asthmatic patients: comparison with oral salbutamol. Thorax48: 130-133.
54.
Kocić, I., Hirano,Y. and Hiraoka, M. (2003) Early exposure to hypertonic solution strongly intensifies the effects of K+ channel opener, rilmakalim, in guinea pig ventricular myocytes. Pol J Pharmacol55: 1159-1162.
55.
Kotlikoff, M.I. and Kamm, K.E. (1996) Molecular mechanisms of beta-adrenergic relaxation of airway smooth muscle. Annu Rev Physiol58: 115-141.
56.
Latourelle, J., Fabry, B. and Fredberg, J.J. (2002) Dynamic equilibration of airway smooth muscle contraction during physiological loading. J Appl Physiol92: 771-779.
57.
Lazaar, A.L. and Panettieri Jr, R.A. (2005) Airway smooth muscle: a modulator of airway remodeling in asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol116: 488-495.
58.
Li, S., Gosling, M., Poll, C.T., Westwick, J. and Cox, B. (2005) Therapeutic scope of modulation of non-voltage-gated cation channels. Drug Discov Today10: 129-137.
59.
Li, W. and Stephens, N.L. (1994) Auxotonic loading and airway smooth muscle shortening . Can J Physiol Pharmacol72: 1458-1463.
60.
Liedtke, W. and Friedman, J.M. (2003) Abnormal osmotic regulation in trpv4-/- mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA100: 13698-13703.
61.
Liedtke, W. and Simon, S.A. (2004) A possible role for TRPV4 receptors in asthma, Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol287: L269-L271.
62.
Liu, C., Tazzeo, T., Lippton, H. and Janssen, L.J. (2007) Role of tyrosine phosphorylation in U46619-induced vasoconstriction of pulmonary vasculature and its modulation by genistein, daidzein, and equol. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol50: 441-448.
63.
Liu, C., Zuo, J. and Janssen, L.J. (2006) Regulation of airway smooth muscle RhoA/ROCK activities by cholinergic and bronchodilator stimuli. Eur Respir J28: 703-711.
64.
Liu, C., Zuo, J., Pertens, E., Helli, P.B. and Janssen, L.J. (2005) Regulation of Rho/ROCK signaling in airway smooth muscle by membrane potential and [Ca2+]i. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol289: L574-L582.
65.
Liu, X., Halayko, A.J., Liu, G., Rao, K., Jiang, H. and Stephens, N.L. (1994). Myosin light chain phosphatase activity in ragweed pollen-sensitized canine tracheal smooth muscle. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol11: 676-681.
66.
Marthan, R. and Woolcock, A.J. (1989) Is a myogenic response involved in deep inspiration-induced bronchoconstriction in asthmatics? Am Rev Respir Dis140: 1354-1358.
67.
Marthan, R., Crevel, H., Guenard, H. and Savineau, J.P. (1992) Responsiveness to histamine in human sensitized airway smooth muscle. Respir Physiol90: 239-250.
68.
Matsumoto, H., Moir, L.M., Oliver, B.G., Burgess, J.K., Roth, M., Black, J.L. et al. (2007) Comparison of gel contraction mediated by airway smooth muscle cells from patients with and without asthma. Thorax62: 848-854.
69.
McKay, S., Hirst, S.J., Bertrand-de Haas, M., de Jonste, J.C., Hoogsteden, H.C., Saxena, P.R. et al. (2000) Tumor necrosis factor-α enhances mRNA expression and secretion of interleukin-6 in cultured human airway smooth muscle cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol23: 103-111.
70.
Mehats, C., Jin, S.L., Wahlstrom, J., Law, E., Umetsu, D.T. and Conti, M. (2003) PDE4D plays a critical role in the control of airway smooth muscle contraction. Faseb J17: 1831-1841.
71.
Milanese, M., Riccio, A.M., Gamalero, C., De Giovanni, B., Brichetto, L., Baroffio, M. et al. (2005) A model of allergen-driven human airway contraction: beta2 pathway dysfunction without cytokine involvement. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol94(2): 273-278.
72.
Mitchell, R.W., Rabe, K.F., Magnussen, H. and Leff, A.R. (1997) Passive sensitization of human airways induces myogenic contractile responses in vitro. J Appl Physiol83: 1276-1281.
73.
Mitchell, R.W., Rühlmann, E., Magnussen, H., Leff, A.R. and Rabe, K.F. (1994) Passive sensitization of human bronchi augments smooth muscle shortening velocity and capacity. Am J Physiol267: L218-L222.
74.
Mizuno, A., Matsumoto, N., Imai, M. and Suzuki, M. (2003) Impaired osmotic sensation in mice lacking TRPV4 , Am J Physiol Cell Physiol285: C96-C101.
75.
Morgan, K.G. and Gangopadhyay, S.S. (2001) Invited review: cross-bridge regulation by thin filament-associated proteins. J Appl Physiol91: 953-962.
76.
Nakahara, T., Moriuchi, H.,Yunoki, M., Sakamato, K. and Ishii, K. (2000) Y-27632 potentiates relaxant effects of beta 2-adrenoceptor agonists in bovine tracheal smooth muscle. Eur J Pharmacol389: 103-106.
77.
Ong, H.L., Brereton, H.M., Harland, M.L. and Barritt, G.J. (2003) Evidence for the expression of transient receptor potential proteins in guinea pig airway smooth muscle cells. Respirology8: 23-32.
78.
Pellegrino, R., Violante, B., Crimi, E. and Brusasco, V. (1991) Time course and calcium dependence of sustained bronchoconstriction induced by deep inhalation in asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis144: 1262-1266.
79.
Peter, D., Jin, S.L., Conti, M., Hatzelmann, A. and Zitt, C. (2007) Differential expression and function of phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) subtypes in human primary CD4+ T cells: predominant role of PDE4D . J Immunol178: 4820-4831.
80.
Porter, M., Evans, M.C., Miner, A.S., Berg, K.M., Ward, K.R. and Ratz, P.H. (2006) Convergence of Ca2+-desensitizing mechanisms activated by forskolin and phenylephrine pretreatment, but not 8-bromo-cGMP. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol290: C1552-C1559.
81.
Pype, J.L., Dupont, L.J., Menten, P., Van Coillie, E., Opdenakker, G., Van Damme, J. et al. (1999) Expression of monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1, MCP-2, and MCP-3 by human airway smooth-muscle cells. Modulation by corticosteroids and T-helper 2 cytokines. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol21: 528-536.
82.
Quayle, J.M., Nelson, M.T. and Standen, N.B. (1997) ATP-sensitive and inwardly rectifying potassium channels in smooth muscle. Physiol Rev77: 1165-1232.
83.
Rabe, K.F., Watson, N., Dent, G., Morton, B.E., Wagner, K., Magnussen, H. et al. (1998) Inhibition of human airway sensitization by a novel monoclonal anti-IgE antibody 17-9. Am J Respir Crit Care Med157: 1429-1435.
84.
Ratz, P.H., Berg, K.M., Urban, N.H. and Miner, A.S. (2005) Regulation of smooth muscle calcium sensitivity: KCl as a calcium-sensitizing stimulus. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol288: C769-C783.
85.
Roberts, J.A. and Thomson, N.C. (1989) The effect of passive sensitisation of human bronchial smooth muscle on in vitro sensitivity to histamine. Pulm Pharmacol2: 103-105.
86.
Rossetti, M., Savineau, J.P., Crevel, H. and Marthan, R. (1995) Role of protein kinase C in nonsensitized and passively sensitized human isolated bronchial smooth muscle. Am J Physiol268: L966-L971.
87.
Rovati, G.E., Baroffio, M., Citro, S., Brichetto, L., Ravasi, S., Milanese, M. et al. (2006) Cysteinyl-leukotrienes in the regulation of beta2-adrenoceptor function: an in vitro model of asthma. Respir Res7: 103.
88.
Sakai, H., Chiba,Y. and Misawa, M. (2006) Augmentation of endothelin-1-induced phosphorylation of CPI-17 and myosin light chain in bronchial smooth muscle from airway hyperresponsive rats. Biol Pharm Bull29: 1897-1899.
89.
Sly, P.D., Olinsky, A. and Landau, L.I. (1986) Does nifedipine affect the diurnal variation of asthma in children? Pediatr Pulmonol2: 206-210.
Song, P., Crimi, E., Milanese, M., Duan, J., Reader, K. and Brusasco, V. (1998) Anti-inflammatory agents and allergen-induced beta2-receptor dysfunction in isolated human bronchi. Am J Respir Crit Care Med158: 1809-1814.
92.
Song, P., Milanese, M., Crimi, E., Bruzzone, S., Zocchi, E., Reader, K. et al. (2000) G(s) protein dysfunction in allergen-challenged human isolated passively sensitized bronchi. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol279: L209-L215.
93.
Song, P., Milanese, M., Crimi, E., Reader, K. and Brusasco, V. (1997) Allergen challenge of passively sensitized human bronchi alters M2 and beta2 receptor function. Am J Respir Crit care Med155: 1230-1234.
94.
Song, P., Rocchi, D., Lazzarotti, M., Crimi, E., Rehder, K. and Brusasco, V. (1996) Postjunctional effect of pinacidil on contractility of isolated bovine trachealis. Eur Respir J9: 2057-2063.
95.
Suzuki, M., Mizuno, A., Kodaira, K. and Imai, M. (2003) Impaired pressure sensation in mice lacking TRPV4 , J Biol Chem278: 22664-22668.
96.
Tran, M.U., Weir, A.J., Fanucchi, M.V., Rodriguez, A.E., Pantle, L.M., Smiley-Jewell, S.M. et al. (2004) Smooth muscle hypertrophy in distal airways of sensitized infant rhesus monkeys exposed to house dust mite allergen. Clin Exp Allergy34: 1627-1633.
97.
Tran, T., Fernandes, D.J., Schuliga, M., Harris, T., Landells, L. and Stewart, A.G. (2005) Stimulus-dependent glucocorticoid-resistance of GM-CSF production in human cultured airway smooth muscle. Br J Pharmacol145: 123-131.
98.
Tunon de Lara, J.M., Okayama,Y., Savineau, J.P. and Marthan, R. (1995) IgE-induced passive sensitization of human isolated bronchi and lung mast cells. Eur Respir J8: 1861-1865.
99.
van Lunteren, E. and Moyer, M.(2001) Auxotonic contractile responses of rat tracheal and bronchial airway smooth muscle. Pulm Pharmacol Ther14: 443-453.
100.
Villanove, X., Marthan, R., Tunon de Lara, J.M., Johnson, P.R., Savineau, J.P., McKay, K.O. et al. (1993) Sensitization decreases relaxation in human isolated airways. Am Rev Respir Dis148: 107-112.
101.
Wang, J., Homer, R.J., Chen, Q. and Elias, J.A. (2000) Endogenous and exogenous IL-6 inhibit aeroallergen-induced Th2 inflammation. J Immunol165: 4051-4061.
102.
Woodruff, P.G., Dolganov, G.M., Ferrando, R.E., Donnelly, S., Hays, S.R., Solberg, O.D. et al. (2004) Hyperplasia of smooth muscle in mild to moderate asthma without changes in cell size or gene expression. Am J Respir Crit Care Med169: 1001-1006.
103.
Woodsome, T.P., Eto, M., Everett, A., Brautigan, D.L. and Kitazawa, T. (2001) Expression of CPI-17 and myosin phosphatase correlates with Ca(2+) sensitivity of protein kinase C-induced contraction in rabbit smooth muscle. J Physiol535: 553-564.
104.
Zappi, L., Nicosia, F., Rocchi, D., Song, P. and Rehder, K. (1995) Opioid agonists modulate release of neurotransmitters in bovine trachealis muscle. Anesthesiology83: 543-551.
