This article develops thinking about ethnicity and difference and its relationship to contemporary immigration control and detention. I argue that current detention practices and debates about migration and border control can best be informed by a broader historical conception of ‘racism’, which reflects connections of power, subjugation and exploitations articulated through racism, to those associated with class, gender and religion. The influence on current immigration control policies of colonialism is not sufficiently reflected in the literature on race and immigration. I argue that the detention of foreign nationals can be explained to an extent by historical processes that encourage use of criminalization and racism to embed marginalization, the purest expression of which is physical removal through deportation. The article also seeks to better connect debates about race and marginalization within and between borders, which can in turn help to understand why prisons and detention centres are disproportionately filled with poorer, often non-white foreign nationals.
AllenC (2010b) Fear and loathing: The political discourse in relation to Muslims and Islam in the British contemporary setting. Politics and Religion2(4): 221–236.
3.
AlivertiA (2013) Crimes of Mobility: Criminal Law and the Regulation of Immigration. Abingdon: Routledge.
AndersonB (2012) What does ‘the migrant’ tell us about the (good) citizen? Centre on Migration, Policy and Society, Working Paper No. 94. Oxford: University of Oxford.
6.
BalibarE (1991) Racism and nationalism. In: BalibarEWallersteinIRace, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities. London: Verso. (Original French version published in 1988.)
7.
BalibarE (2005) Difference, otherness and exclusion. Parallax11(1): 19–34.
8.
BarkerM (1981) The New Racism: Conservatives and the Ideology of the Tribe. London: Junction Books.
9.
BaumanZ (1998) Globalization: The Human Consequences. New York: Columbia University Press.
10.
BhabhaHK (1994) The Location of Culture. Abingdon: Routledge.
11.
BhuiHS (2006) Anti-racist practice in NOMS: Reconciling managerialist and professional realities. Howard Journal of Criminal Justice45(2): 171–190.
12.
BhuiHS (2007) Alien experience: Foreign national prisoners after the deportation crisis. Probation Journal: The Journal of Community and Criminal Justice54(4): 368–382.
13.
BhuiHS (2009) Foreign national prisoners: Issues and debates. In: BhuiHS (ed.) Race and Criminal Justice. London: SAGE.
14.
BhuiHS (2013) Humanising immigration control and detention. In: AasKFBosworthM (eds) Borders of Punishment: Migration, Citizenship, and Social Exclusion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
15.
BhuiHS (2014) Understanding the experiences of foreign prisoners and immigration detainees: Issues of coherence and legitimacy. Unpublished PhD thesis, Lancaster University.
16.
BosworthM (2014) Inside Immigration Detention. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
17.
BosworthMKelleziB (2014) Citizenship and belonging in a women’s immigration detention centre. In: PhillipsCWebsterC (eds) New Directions in Race, Ethnicity and Crime. London: Routledge.
18.
BosworthMBowlingBLeeM (2008) Globalization, ethnicity and racism: An introduction. Theoretical Criminology12(3): 263–273.
19.
BowlingB (2013) Epilogue: The borders of punishment: Towards a criminology of mobility. In: AasKFBosworthM (eds) Borders of Punishment: Migration, Citizenship, and Social Exclusion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
20.
BowlingBPhillipsC (2002) Race, Crime and Justice. Harlow: Longman.
21.
Bravo LópezF (2011) Towards a definition of Islamophobia: Approximations of the early twentieth century. Ethnic and Racial Studies34(4): 556–573.
22.
CastlesSMillerMJ (2009) The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
23.
CesariJ (2011) Islamophobia in the West: A comparison between Europe and the United States. In: EspositoJLKalinI (eds) Islamophobia: The Challenge of Pluralism in the 21st Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
24.
CohenS (2002) Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of Mods and Rockers. Abingdon: Routledge.
25.
ColeM (2009) A plethora of ‘suitable enemies’: British racism at the dawn of the twenty-first century. Ethnic and Racial Studies32(9): 1671–1685.
26.
DunnKMKlockerNSalabayT (2007) Contemporary racism and Islamaphobia in Australia: Racializing religion. Ethnicities7(4): 564–589.
27.
EarleR (2014) Inside white – racism, social relations and ethnicity in an English prison. In: PhillipsCWebsterC (eds) New Directions in Race, Ethnicity and Crime. London: Routledge.
28.
ECHR (Equality and Human Rights Commission) (2010) Stop and Think: A Critical Review of the Use of Stop and Search Powers in England and Wales. London: ECHR.
29.
FanonF (1967a) The Wretched of the Earth. Trans. Farrington C; first published in French in 1961. London: Penguin.
30.
FanonF (1967b) Black Skins White Masks. Trans. Markmann CL; first published in French in 1952. New York: Grove Press.
31.
FeketeL (2001) The emergence of xeno-racism. Race and Class43(2): 23–40.
32.
FeketeL (2009) A Suitable Enemy: Racism, Migration and Islamophobia in Europe. London: Pluto Press.
33.
FoucaultM (1975) Discipline and Punish:The Birth of the Prison. London: Penguin. (Penguin Translation 1978.)
34.
GarlandD (2001) Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
35.
GibneyMJ (2013) Deportation, crime and the changing character of membership in the United Kingdom. In: AasKFBosworthM (eds) Borders of Punishment: Migration, Citizenship, and Social Exclusion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
36.
HalesLGelsthorpeL (2012) The Criminalisation of Migrant Women. Cambridge: Cambridge University.
HudsonB (2007) Diversity, crime and criminal justice. In: MaguireMMorganRReinerR (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
48.
KaufmanE (2013) Hubs and spokes: The transformation of the British prison. In: AasKFBosworthM (eds) Borders of Punishment: Migration, Citizenship, and Social Exclusion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
49.
KaufmanE (2014) Gender at the border: Nationalism and the new logic of punishment. Punishment and Society16(2): 135–151.
50.
KaufmanEBosworthM (2013) Prison and national identity: Citizenship, punishment and the sovereign state. In: ScottD (ed.) Why Prison?Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
51.
LeeM (2013) Human trafficking and border control in the Global South. In: AasKFBosworthM (eds) Borders of Punishment: Migration, Citizenship, and Social Exclusion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
52.
LieblingAArnoldHStraubC (2011) An exploration of staff–prisoner relationships at HMP Whitemoor: 12 years on. Revised Final Report. London: Ministry of Justice.
53.
MarrA (2010) The Making of Modern Britain. London: Pan Macmillan.
54.
MemmiA (1957/2003) The Colonizer and the Colonized. Trans. Greenfield H; first published in French in 1957. Abingdon: Earthscan Publications.
55.
MilesR (1989) Racism. London: Routledge.
56.
MooreKMasonPLewisJ (2008) Images of Islam in the UK: The representations of British Muslims in the national print news media 2000–08. Cardiff School of Journalism, Media and Cultural Studies. Available at: http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/jomec/resources/08channel4-dispatches.pdf.
57.
NAO (National Audit Office) (2014) Managing and Removing Foreign National Offenders. London: NAO.
58.
OberoiP (2009) The enemy at the gates and the enemy within: Migrants, social control and human rights. The International Council on Human Rights Policy Research Paper. Geneva: ICHRP.
59.
PaliddaS (2009) The criminalization and victimization of immigrants: A critical perspective. In: McdonaldWF (ed.) Immigration, Crime and Justice (Sociology of Crime Law and Deviance, Volume 13). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
60.
PaliddaS (ed.) (2011) Racial Criminalization of Migrants in the 21st Century. Surrey: Ashgate.
61.
ParekhB (2000) [The Parekh Report.] The Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain. London: Profile Books.
62.
PhillipsC (2008) Negotiating identities: Ethnicity and social relations in a young offenders’ institution. Theoretical Criminology12(3): 313–331.
63.
PhillipsC (2012) The Multicultural Prison: Ethnicity, Masculinity, and Social Relations among Prisoners. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
64.
PilkingtonA (2003) Racial Disadvantage and Ethnic Diversity in Britain. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
65.
RichmondA (1994) Global Apartheid: Refugees, Racism, and the New World Order. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
66.
Runnymede Trust (1997) Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All. London: Runnymede Trust.
67.
SitkinL (2013) ‘The right to walk the streets’: Looking for illegal migration on the streets and stations of the UK and Germany. Prison Service Journal205: 29–33.
68.
SmithEMarmoM (2011) Uncovering the ‘virginity testing’ controversy in the National Archives: The intersectionality of discrimination in British immigration history. Gender and History23(1): 147–165.
69.
SolomosJ (2003) Race and Racism in Britain. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
70.
SpencerRG (1997) British Immigration Policy since 1939: The Making of Multi-Racial Britain. London: Routledge.
71.
SpruytBElchardusM (2012) Are anti-Muslim feelings more widespread than anti-foreigner feelings? Evidence from two split-sample experiments. Ethnicities12(6): 800–820.
72.
TonryM (2014) Race, ethnicity, crime and immigration. In: BuceriusSMTonryM (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime and Immigration. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
73.
VogelDMcDonaldWFJordanB. (2009) Police cooperation in internal enforcement of immigration control: Learning from international comparison. In: McDonaldWF (ed.) Immigration, Crime and Justice (Sociology of Crime Law and Deviance, Volume 13). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
74.
WacquantL (1999) ‘Suitable enemies’: Foreigners and immigrants in the prisons of Europe. Punishment and Society1(2): 215–222.
75.
WacquantL (2010) Class, race, and hyperincarceration in revanchist America. Daedalus139(3): 74–90.
76.
WeberLBowlingB (2008) Valiant beggars and global vagabonds: Select, eject, immobilize. Theoretical Criminology12(3): 355–375.
77.
WebsterC (2008) Marginalized white ethnicity, race and crime. Theoretical Criminology12(3): 293–312.
78.
WieviorkaM (2002) The development of racism in Europe. In: GoldbergDTSolomosJ (eds) A Companion to Racial and Ethnic Studies. Oxford: Blackwell.
79.
WilsherD (2012) Immigration Detention. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
80.
WinderR (2004) Bloody Foreigners: The Story of Immigration to Britain. London: Abacus.
