This article chronicles 20th-century American media coverage of the Middle East. Communication scholars have been at odds with determining just how the region has been portrayed, and their descriptions are not entirely uniform. Many of these scholars have accused the American media of favoritism in its coverage of the region’s conflicts, arguing through their research that objectivity has been present but rare in the nation’s mainstream press. This article traces those research efforts in an attempt to establish a picture of the patterns and shifting paradigms of American media coverage of the Middle East, particularly the Israeli—Palestinian conflict.
Abunimeh, A. and R. Masri ( 2000) ‘The Media’s Spin on Iraq’, in A. Arnove (ed.) Iraq Under Siege: The Deadly Impact of Sanctions and War. Cambridge, MA: South End Press.
2.
Adams, W.C. and P. Heyl ( 1981) ‘From Cairo to Kabul with the Networks, 1972-1980’ , in W.C. Adams (ed.) Television Coverage of the Middle East. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
3.
Asi, M. ( 1981) ‘Arabs, Israelis and TV News: A Time-Series, Content Analysis’, in W.C. Adams (ed.) Television Coverage of the Middle East. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
4.
Bagneid, M. and S. Schneider ( 1981) ‘Sadat Goes to Jerusalem: Televised Images, Themes and Agenda’, in W.C. Adams (ed.) Television Coverage of the Middle East. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
5.
Barranco, D. and L. Shyles ( 1988) ‘Arab vs. Israeli Coverage in the New York Times, 1976 and 1984’, Journalism Quarterly65(1): 178-81.
6.
Batarfi, K. ( 1997) ‘Three American Prestige Newspapers’ Stand toward the Arab-Israeli Conflicts: A Content Analysis of Editorials’ , paper presented at the International Communication Division at the 1997 AEJMC Convention.
7.
Christison, K. ( 1987) ‘The Arab in Recent Popular Fiction’, Middle East Journal41(3): 397-411.
8.
Daugherty, D. and M. Warden ( 1979) ‘Prestige Editorial Treatment of the Mideast during 11 Crisis Years’, Journalism Quarterly56(4): 776-82.
9.
De Boer, C. ( 1983) ‘The Polls: Attitudes toward the Arab-Israeli Conflict’ , Public Opinion Quarterly47(1): 121-31.
10.
Erskine, H. ( 1979) ‘The Polls: Western Partisanship in the Middle East’ , Public Opinion Quarterly33(4): 627-40.
11.
Evensen, B. ( 1990) ‘Surrogate State Department? Times Coverage of Palestine, 1948’, Journalism Quarterly67(2): 391-400.
12.
Ghareeb, E. (ed.) (1983) Split Vision: The Portrayal of Arabs in the American Media. Washington, DC: American-Arab Affairs Council.
13.
Gilboa, E. ( 1989) ‘American Media Messages and Public Opinion on the Palestinian Uprising’, Political Communication and Persuasion6: 191-202.
14.
Griffin, J. ( 1990) ‘Effects of Israeli Press Restrictions on Coverage of the Palestinian Uprising and on US Public Opinion’, Gazette45: 157-72.
15.
Hadar, L. ( 1980) ‘Behind the New York Times Middle East Coverage’ , Middle East Review12(3): 56-61.
16.
Hafez, K. ( 2000) Islam and the West in the Mass Media: Fragmented Images in a Globalizing World. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
17.
Hashem, M. ( 1997) ‘Coverage of Arabs in Two Leading US Newsmagazines: Time and Newsweek’, in Y. Kamalipour (ed.) The US Media and the Middle East. Westport, CT: Praeger.
18.
Herman, E. and N. Chomsky ( 1988) Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York: Pantheon.
19.
Khouri, G. ( 1998) The Other Gulf War Syndrome: Flaws in US Media Coverage of the 1997/98 Iraq Crisis, Issue Paper # 27. Washington, DC: ADC Research Institute.
20.
Khouri, G., M. Ramadan and M. Wingfield ( 1992) 1991 Report on Anti-Arab Hate Crimes: Political and Hate Violence against Arab-Americans. Washington, DC: ADC.
21.
Khouri, G., M. Ramadan and M. Wingfield ( 1996) 1995 Report on Anti-Arab Racism: Hate Crimes, Discrimination and Defamation of Arab Americans. Washington, DC: ADC.
22.
Lichter, R. ( 1981) ‘Media Support for Israel: A Survey of Leading Journalists’ , pp. 40-52 in W.C. Adams (ed.) Television Coverage of the Middle East. Norwood, NJ: Ablex .
23.
Lipset, S. ( 1978) ‘The Polls on the Middle East’, Middle East Review11(1): 24-30.
24.
Michalak, L. ( 1985) Cruel and Unusual: Negative Images of Arabs in Popular Culture, Issue Paper #15. Washington, DC: ADC Research Institute.
25.
Mishra, V. ( 1979) ‘News from the Middle East in Five US Media’ , Journalism Quarterly56(2): 374-8.
26.
Moughrabi, F. ( 1988) American Public Opinion and the Question of Palestine: An Analysis of Changes in American Views Based on Polls Taken from 1978-1988, Issue Paper # 22. Washington, DC: ADC Research Institute.
27.
Mousa, I. ( 1984) The Arab Image in the US Press. New York: Peter Lang.
28.
Palmer, A. ( 1997) ‘The Arab Image in Newspaper Political Cartoons’ , pp. 139-50 in Y. Kamalipour (ed.) The US Media and the Middle East. Westport, CT: Praeger.
29.
Sabbagh, S. ( 1990) Sex, Lies and Stereotypes: The Image of Arabs in American Popular Fiction, Issue Paper # 23. Washington, DC: ADC Research Institute.
30.
Said, E. ( 1978) Orientalism. New York: Pantheon.
31.
Said, E. ( 1997) Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. London: Vintage.
32.
Shaheen, J. ( 1981a) ‘Images of Saudis and Palestinians: A Review of Major Documentaries’, in W.C. Adams (ed.) Television Coverage of the Middle East. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
33.
Shaheen, J. ( 1981b) ABSCAM: Arabiaphobia in America. Washington DC: ADC.
34.
Shaheen, J. ( 1984) The TV Arab. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press.
35.
Sheikh, K., V. Price and H. Oshagan ( 1995) ‘Press Treatment of Islam: What Kind of Picture do the Media Paint?’, Gazette56(1): 139-54.
36.
Shoemaker, P. and S. Reese ( 1996) Mediating the Message: Theories of Influences on Mass Media Content. New York: Longman .
37.
Slade, S. ( 1980) ‘The Image of the Arab in America: Analysis of a Poll onAmerican Attitudes’, Middle East Journal2: 143-62.
38.
Sreebny, D. ( 1979) ‘American Correspondents in the Middle East: Perceptions and Problems’, Journalism Quarterly56(2): 386-88.
39.
Suleiman, M. ( 1988) Arabs in the Mind of America. Brattleboro, VT: Amana Books.
40.
Terry, J. ( 1985) Mistaken Identity: Arab Stereotypes in Popular Writing . Washington, DC: American-Arab Affairs Council.
