/ YouTube videos featuring the countries Ghana and Kenya were assessed, finding that this citizen media tool is allowing ordinary people to construct representations of African countries but that these are much more likely to come from westerners. Although these African countries are not represented as chaotic and violent as has often been the case in the past, they continue to be stereotyped. Africans unaccompanied by westerners are most likely to appear in entertainment, especially music, videos.
`Akon Shoots New Video in Ghana' (2006) Accra Mail/Africa News 30 August; LexisNexis database (accessed 8 January 2007).
2.
Benkler, Y. (2006) The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
3.
Bruner, E. and B. Kirshenblatt-Gimblatt (1994) `Maasai on the Lawn: Tourist Realism in East Africa', Cultural Anthropology9(4): 435-70.
4.
`Challenges of Diaspora Tourism' (2007) Daily Champion/Africa News 23 November; LexisNexis database (accessed 5 January 2007).
5.
De Witte, M. (2005) `The Holy Spirit is on the Air in Ghana', Media Development; at: www.wacc.org.uk/wacc/publications/media_development/2005_2/the_holy_spirit_on_air_in_ghana (accessed 2 January 2008).
6.
Duncan, J.S. and D. Gregory (1999) `Introduction', pp. 1-13 in J.S. Duncan and D. Gregory (eds) Writes of Passage: Reading Travel Writing. London: Routledge.
7.
Dunn, K. (2004) `Fear of a Black Planet: Anarchy, Anxieties, and Postcolonial Travel to Africa', Third World Quarterly25(3): 483-99.
8.
Fair, J.E. (1993) `War, Famine, and Poverty: Race in the Construction of Africa's Media Image', Journal of Communication Inquiry17: 5-22.
9.
Fine, A. (2006) Momentum: Igniting Social Change in the Connected Age. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass .
10.
Friedman, T.L. (2006) The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
11.
Fürsich, E. and M.B. Robins (2002) `Africa.com: The Self-Representation of Sub-Saharan Nations on the World Wide Web', Critical Studies in Media Communication19(2): 190-211.
12.
Garfield, B. (2006) `YouTube vs the Boob Tube', Wired 14 December; at: www.wired.com/archive/14.12/youtube.html (accessed 5 February 2007).
13.
Ghana (2007) The World Factbook . Washington, DC: CIA; at: www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld-factbook/ (accessed 9 January 2008).
14.
Hackett, R.I.J. (1998) `Charismatic/Pentecostal Appropriation of Media Technologies in Nigeria and Ghana', Journal of Religion in Africa28(3): 258-77.
15.
Harding, F. (2003) `Africa and the Moving Image: Television, Film and Video', Journal of African Cultural Studies16(1): 69-84.
16.
Hasty, J. (2002) `Rites of Passage, Routes of Redemption: Emancipation Tourism and the Wealth of Culture', Africa Today49(3): 46-78.
17.
`Hiphop's Fusion Fans Grow in Ghana' (2000) Billboard 11 January; LexisNexis database (accessed 5 January 2007).
18.
Hunter-Gault, C. (2006) New News out of Africa: Uncovering Africa's Renaissance . New York: Oxford University Press .
19.
Kaspin, D. (1997) `On Ethnographic Authority and the Tourist Trade: Anthropology in the House of Mirrors', Anthropological Quarterly70(2): 53-7.
20.
Kenya (2007) The World Factbook . Washington, DC: CIA; at: www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld-factbook/ (accessed 9 January 2008).
21.
Koigi, J. (2007) `Kenya: Videos Big Hit in New Internet Craze', AllAfrica.com 17 February; at: allafrica.com/stories/200702161106.html (accessed 18 March 2007).
22.
`Local Music Videos' (2007) Ghanaian Chronicle/Africa News 11 September; LexisNexis database (accessed 5 January 2008).
23.
Moeller, S.D. (1999) Compassion Fatigue: How the Media Sell Disease, Famine, War, and Death. New York: Routledge.
24.
Mudhai, O.F. (2002) `The Internet: Triumphs and Trials for Kenyan Journalism' , pp. 89-104 in M. Robins and R. Hilliard (eds) Beyond Boundaries: Cyberspace in Africa . Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
25.
Mudimbe, V.Y. (1988) The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy and the Order of Knowledge. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
26.
Mutala, S.M. (2003) `Cyber Café Industry in Africa', Journal of Information Science29(6): 489-97.
27.
Nafula, N. (2007a) `The Power of the Net', East African Standard 26 January; at: www.eastandard.net/mag/mag.php?id=1143964074&catid=123 (accessed 20 March 2007).
28.
Nafula, N. (2007b) `The Girl in the Video', The East African Standard 19 January; at: www.eastandard.net/mag/mag.php?id=1143963808&catid=123 (accessed 20 March 2007).
29.
Naim, M. (2007) `The YouTube Effect', Foreign Policy January-February; at: www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3676 (accessed 14 February 2007).
30.
Nyairo, J. and J. Ogude (2004) `Popular Music, Popular Politics: Unbwogable and the Idioms of Freedom in Kenyan Popular Music', African Affairs104(415): 225-49.
31.
Ogundimu, F. (1994) `Images of Africa on US Television: Do You Have Problems with That?', Issue: A Journal of Opinion22(1): 7-11.
32.
Okigbo, C. (1995) `National Images in the Age of the Information Superhighway: African Perspectives', Africa Media Review9(2): 105-21.
33.
Opoku-Mensah, A. (2004) `Twin Peaks: WSIS from Geneva to Tunis: Whither Africa in the Information Society?', International Communication Gazette66(3-4): 253-73.
34.
Parsitau, D.S. (2006) `"Then Sings my Soul": Gospel Music as Popular Culture in the Spiritual Lives of Kenyan Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians' , Journal of Religion and Popular Culture14; at: http://www.usask.ca/relst/jrpc/art14-singsmysoul.html (accessed 17 March 2007).
35.
Pieterse, J.N. (1992) White on Black: Images of Africa and Blacks in Western Popular Culture. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
36.
Pires, M. (2000) `Study-Abroad and Cultural Exchange Programs to Africa: America's Image of a Continent', African Issues28(1-2): 39-45.
37.
Pratt, M.L. (2000) Imperial Eyes: Studies in Travel Writing and Transculturation . London: Routledge (Orig. pub. 1992.)
38.
Rheingold, H. (2002) Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution. Boston, MA: Perseus Books. Robins, M. (2002) `Are African Women Online Just ICT Consumers?', International Communication Gazette 64(3): 235-49.
39.
Sonaike, S.A. (2004) `The Internet and the Dilemma of Africa's Development' , International Communication Gazette66(1): 41-61.
40.
Spurr, D. (1993) Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing, and Imperial Administration. Durham, NC : Duke University Press.
41.
Tall, S.M. (2004) `Senegalese Emigres: New Information and Communication Technologies', Review of African Political Economy99: 31-48.
42.
`Tourism is a Cash Cow that is Only Reluctantly Milked' (2007 ) The Nation/Africa News 13 September; LexisNexis database (accessed 8 January 2007).
43.
Wainaina, B. (2007) `Generation Kenya', Vanity Fair July: 88-94.
