Abstract
Gender inequality has a significant impact on the sporting world, with a range of implications and consequences. In coaching, women are confronted with a significant challenge in addressing inequity throughout the course of their careers. To gain a deeper insight into the under-representation of women in sports coaching, within the context of the Female Sport Coaching Training Programme (FEMCoach) project, the educational support available to coaches was investigated. To identify and synthesise the current scientific evidence concerning the educational programmes and syllabi offered to female youth sports coaches in Europe. A Boolean combination of keywords was used to search the databases of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Under the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement, inclusion and exclusion criteria were developed. Given the heterogeneity of the final studies included, a narrative review methodology was deemed the most appropriate. A total of 225 potential records were identified, dating from the earliest entries to 30/02/24. Six articles were included: three qualitative and three that employed a mixed-methods approach. Different experiences of women with sport were reported and analysed. The review highlights a critical need for educational programmes specifically designed for women coaches. These programmes should address the unique biological and socioeconomic challenges faced by women coaches, equipping them to respond with clarity and objectivity. Future studies should prioritize identifying and implementing effective strategies to challenge and disrupt cultural norms that sustain gender disparities, with the ultimate goal of promoting greater inclusion and equitable representation in coaching roles.
Introduction
The representation of women in sports has seen continuous growth. 1 Concerning athletes, gender disparities have notably decreased 2 due to a growing commitment from relevant authorities towards equal opportunities across genders. However, gender disparities still prevail in coaching and leadership positions at all levels, 3 including in youth sports 4 where women representation remains overall limited. Traditional masculine beliefs of leadership are extremely rooted in coaching, 5 turning gender an important construct in sports leadership and coaching. 6 Sports organizations and implemented policies are of paramount importance to change this paradigm.
Sport is considered important to promote gender equality and empowering women and girls. 7 As leader of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC), plays a critical role in promoting gender equality, a basic human right considered a Fundamental Principle of the Olympic Charter. 8 The IOC's responsibilities include “to encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures, to implement the principle of equality of men and women”. Also, at the European Commission level, gender equality is considered a cornerstone of effective management in European sports organizations and to foster a safe inclusive environment, the EU is actively working against gender stereotypes and gender-based violence in sports and media. 9
In the Olympic Games women coaches represented 11% of all coaches in London 2012, 11% in Rio 2016 and, 13% in Tokio 2020. 10 In Europe, according to the survey across 18 European countries, only 31% of European coaches were women, with a significant variance across countries (e.g., 9% of women coaches in Portugal and 77% in Montenegro). 11 Women coaches are more commonly found at local and national levels 12 and predominantly in sports with higher women's participation rates, such as gymnastics and dance. 13
In response, numerous projects have been launched in Europe to increase opportunities for women in sports, especially in coaching. 14 For example, in 2019, the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) created a coach mentorship programme, the UEFA Coach Development Programme for Women, which pairs experienced coaches with emerging women coaches to increase their representation in club and national teams. In 2023, UEFA introduced the Women's Football Competence Framework, aimed at raising coaching standards in women's football and establishing pathways for women coaches. 15
Particularly in young populations, sports have a great potential to improve health and well-being, 16 yet, playing sports by itself may not always result in favorable developmental effects. Thus, coaches’ knowledge, traits, and conduct have an important effect on young athletes’ experiences with sports, 17 and the quality of coaching along with the results of young athletes are greatly influenced by these aspects. 18
In youth sports male beliefs prevail and few coaches are women. 19 Coaches have a crucial impact in the development of positive youth sports experience in the physical, psychological, and social domain, 20 with direct effect on the quality of youth sports experiences (e.g., athletes’ motivation, engagement, retention, and enjoyment). 16
The persistence of gender discrepancies in coaching is linked to multiple factors, including sociocultural, organizational, interpersonal and personal barriers. 21 Coaching has traditionally been male-dominated, and gender stereotypes persist, limiting women's exposure to international experience, networking and leadership opportunities. The limited offer of educational programmes, the difficulties in managing family life and full-time coaching, and the deficiency in remuneration, are other identified barriers. 22
Female role models in sports positively influence women's participation, 23 and research suggests that female coaches may help to sustain female athletes’ early coaching careers. Mentorship programmes have a large influence, 24 even though their advantages are focused at the individual and interpersonal levels and the practices remain conceptually ambiguous. 25 Directing attention also to the sociocultural and organizational level, a combined approach involving formal regulations (e.g., targets and quotas) and women-centred methods of preferential treatment appears to be beneficial for women coaches’ recruitment and empowerment. 26
Implementing gender equality action plans and strategies requires educational programmes and information tools tailored to all strategic stakeholders, employing diverse platforms and methods to convey scientific findings, proper techniques, and policy rationale, fostering awareness and ownership of gender equality initiatives. 27
To discuss coaching programmes, it is crucial to understand the definition and broader dimensions of sports coaching. Using an inter-disciplinary approach, sports coaching was described as being situated in time and space; having a layered set of influences (i.e., socio-cultural, institutional, interpersonal and individual); having a goal orientation; being dependent on the resources available at each level; being the product of reasoning, reflecting and strategizing; and featuring coaching actions that lead, imperfectly and over time, to outcomes. 28
Official documents, such as the International Sport Coaching Framework, 29 The European Sport Coaching Framework 30 and the European Sport Coaching Policy Framework 31 provides essential guidelines that outline coaching roles, competencies, and qualifications, that can differ among sports and countries. In general, the coach is in charge of formulating objectives, planning, organizing, leading, supervising, and managing the training process, while also holistically influencing athletes’ physical, mental, intellectual, educational, and social growth.32,33 The coaches’ knowledge, skills, competencies, and experience are key factors that determine their coaching effectiveness, 34 that must be applied in practice to effectively manage athlete's development process and create solid coach-athlete relationships.35,36
In comparison to men, very few women enrol in formal coach education programmes and actively pursue careers as sports coaches, this fact may be due to gender discrimination, inappropriate practices, feeling unwelcome, and lack of self-worth. 37 Thus, a woman's unequal coaching status is frequently linked to perceived gender disparities 38 and addressing this issue in sports coaching requires a commitment to equal opportunities and a reconsideration of institutional practices. 37
Over the past two decades, in Europe and throughout the world, countries have prioritized improving coaching education systems to meet current demands. 30 The quality and quantity of human resources required in the industry are influenced by the education model and strategy developed and applied in every educational system. 39 The foundation of a country-level coach education system is determined by the education quality, the coaches’ competences and employment opportunities accomplished through education programmes which also add to the social and human capital of countries. Hence, research shows a particular emphasis on the need to improve education quality. 40
Although the availability and significance of formal coach education programmes have grown significantly over the years, giving researchers and experts useful information regarding their role, nature, and effects, little is known regarding how coaches effectively experience them, particularly in terms of their structure, content and assessment, and the value that coaches attach to them. 41 This narrative review, therefore, aims to synthesize the current state of women's youth sport coaching education in Europe.
Methods
Literature search
This narrative review searched for women's youth sports coaching research conducted at different levels of competition (i.e., irrespective of training level). Although narrative, the source articles were identified using a systematic search strategy, following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines (PRISMA). 42 Although the initial plan for the study was to conduct a systematic review, it became clear after the article captured that the study designs and outcomes were too heterogeneous to merge using this approach, thus, a narrative review has been used to provide the findings and discussion.
Search strategy
Two investigators (VOD and JC-G) performed independent systematic electronic searches in international electronic databases: Medline (PubMed), Scopus, and Web of Science (WOS). The following search terms were utilized to find the relevant articles: (“sports” [All Fields]) AND (“coaching” [All Fields]) AND (“programmes” [All Fields]) AND (“female” [All Fields]) OR (“women” [All Fields]) AND (“youth”[All Fields]) AND (“Europe” [All Fields]) AND (“training”[All Fields]) NOT (“disease” [All Fields]) NOT (“mental health” [All Fields]).
Eligibility criteria
The narrative review strategy and eligibility criteria were developed following the PICO (Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome) scheme, with the inclusion criteria defined as follows: (P) Population: Women coaches; (I) Intervention: data collection for the state of women youth sport coaching in Europe; (C) Comparison: Coaches General Practice; (O) Outcome: identification of best practices and essential skills in women youth sport coaching across Europe. This framework guided the central research question: What is the current state of women youth sport coaching education courses and syllabus in Europe?
Studies qualified for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) peer-reviewed original research articles, (2) populations consisting of women coaches of any age, sex or competition level, and (3) studies conducted within any European country. Studies were excluded if they: (1) were addressed clinical or therapeutic purposes related to medical coaching, (2) lacked full-text availability in English, or (3) were abstracts, non-peer reviewed articles, book chapters or reviews.
The search included all articles available in the electronic databases mentioned above, from the earliest entries up to February 30, 2024. After removing duplicates, publications were screened by VOD based on titles and abstracts, followed by full-text evaluation against inclusion and exclusion criteria. Final selection was based on relevance to the research question and adherence to the quality standards defined for study design.
Study selection and data extraction
The articles selected from the databases were transferred and cross-referenced to identify duplicates prior the screening start by VOD Once articles were selected for inclusion, the following data were extracted and stored on a Microsoft Excel spread sheet: (1) Article title; (2) author/s; (3) year of publication; (4) document type; (5) language; (6) abstract; (7) source title; (8) Digital Object Identifier (DOI). The whole screening processes was in line with the above-mentioned eligible criteria, initially all duplicates were removed followed by a screening of the titles and abstracts. When an article could not be rejected immediately, it was included in the eligible articles for full-text screening and, again if necessarily removed if not matching the eligibility criteria. The number of studies that meet the pre-stablished inclusion criteria, and those excluded together with the reasons for their exclusion were documented.
Results
Study selection
As a result of the literature search, 225 potential records were identified. After excluding 219 records (7 duplicates; 8 did not have full text available in the English language; 71 abstracts, non-peer reviewed papers, books or reviews; 109 does not related to women coaches of youth athletes; 23 did not considered the coach gender; and one article for which the full text was not available), 6 articles43–48 that lastly met the inclusion criteria integrated the final review. The searched papers were published between 2001 and 2023. A detailed overview of the decision-making process is represented through a flowchart in Figure 1.
PRISMA flowchart, overview of the decision-making process for the included articles. PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses.
Participant characteristics
Considering the studies included in the present review, 3 studies included women exclusively (50%),44,47,48 and 3 studies integrated a mixed sex sample (50%).43,45,46 Despite sex and gender are different concepts, they were combined to describe the entire sample to facilitate the interpretation and results classification (e.g., male/men or female/women). Across the 6 studies there were 1419 participants in total, 1059 male (74.6%), 357 women (25.2%) and 3 non-binary or prefer not to say (0.2%). Coaches ranged from 18 to 71 years of age.
When categorizing the type of sports that participants coached, studies included football (n = 2, 33.3%), rhythmic gymnastics (n = 1, 16.7%), mountain training (n = 1, 16.7%), hockey, soccer, cricket, and netball (n = 1, 16.7%) and badminton, swimming and kayaking, aquatic sport (not specified) and martial arts (n = 1, 16.7%). Table 1 provides the details of the included studies.
Details of included studies.
Notes: M – Men; W – Women; D – Diverse; Football – related to soccer in Europe.
Intervention characteristics
The considered 6 studies for the present narrative review, 3 were qualitative (50%)44,46,47 and 3 adopted a mixed-methods approach (50%).43,45,48 They consisted of 3 interview studies (50%),44,46,47 2 surveys’ studies (33.3%)45,48 and one with survey, focus group and interview study (16.7%). 43 All the studies were conducted in Europe, 4 in England (66.7%),44–47 one in Poland and Serbia (16.7%) 48 and one in Bulgaria, England, Finland, France, Poland and Spain (16.7%). 43
The independent variables were: Physical education experiences; 44 Success in rhythmic gymnastics; 48 Knowledge and understanding, ease of communication between athletes and staff, top-level intervention; 43 Masculine hegemony; 45 Leadership scheme and its constituent parts; 47 and Coaching practice. 46 Regarding dependent variables studies focused on: Footballing opportunities; 44 Rankings of professional activities; 48 Menstrual cycle, hormonal contraception, pregnancy/childcare; 43 Women's relative powerlessness as coaches; 45 Men and women views; 47 and Equity training. 46
Outcomes of the studies
The main results of the articles considered for the present review were: To ensure equality for all genders and to tackle the existing role of gender norms, key themes must be considered; 44 Educational programmes should consider hierarchy of professional activities; 48 Support dependent on knowledge and understanding, ease of communication between athletes and staff, and top-level intervention; 43 Women coaches are affected by micro, everyday interactions and experiences. Women who want to succeed carry a burden of doubt and suspicion; 45 Differences in the usefulness perception of the scheme (women – knowledge acquisition; men - activity and skill acquisition). Women barriers may lie within the scheme structure; 47 and seeing gender equity through an “equal opportunities” lens fails to challenge dominant and discriminative ideologies and does not enable coaches to address equity within their practices. 46
Discussion
This narrative review synthesized the current state of women youth sport coaching education in Europe, ultimately including few studies.43–48 We found that there is a scarcity of literature on women coaches of youth athletes in Europe and is more focused primarily on football (soccer). Gender disparities often present barriers to women coaches’ success, suggesting that adapting coaching educational programmes are a critical first step toward changing mentalities.
This review employed a narrative approach with a systematic search, ensuring a thorough examination of relevant databases. Research conducted outside Europe or published in languages other than English was excluded, aligning with the study's scope. In accordance with other reviews, 49 we did not attempt to control for heterogeneity across studies. Consequently, methodological differences among the included studies limit the generalizability of our findings. Despite these limitations, we believe this review provides an accurate overview of the current state of women youth sport coaching education in Europe.
Sports-related gender roles and stereotypes are developed in children at a young age, underscoring the importance of fostering gender equality from an early age in physical education programmes. This can positively shape young individuals living a healthy active lifestyle in adulthood, 50 particularly through positive experiences associated with sports. 51 Since schools have an important assignment on physical activity trough physical education it is important to consider how this will affect future adults. Studies on gender differences in sport coaching emphasize the need for gender-sensitive approaches in coaching education. 52 In the sports field, starting from elementary school, gender equality needs to be stablished if we want to avoid future negative behaviors associated with gender discrepancies, sexisms, discrimination or promote different opportunities based just upon gender.53,54 The Grice et al. 44 study, suggests that schools should encourage sports to promote equity among children's and youth, creating strategies to increase sports participation and inclusion. Teacher's and coach education programmes should provide tools to challenge gender norms, ensuring all sports are accessible regardless of genders. 44 In the study of Stride et al. 55 gendered power dynamics in physical education are highlighted, and Hopkins et al., 49 on a systematic review, identify key factors affecting girls’ sports participation. The most frequently cited was personal factors, such as self-perceptions (e.g., issues of physicality and behaviors to psychological issues, such as self-worth and self-determination) and desirable outcomes of sports (e.g., enjoyment and health benefits). The second most frequently cited was family factors, including parents’ characteristics (e.g., employment status and level of physical activity) and family's support. Followed by the number of biological (e.g., height, age, Body Mass Index) and peer-related factors with equal engagement impact. Socioeconomic and environmental variables, frequently related with limited resources or accessibility to sports, were considered the next factors in this chain that ends with factors associated with the type of sport or coaching influences. 49 In sum, and in a practical point of view, it is possible to assume that girls are therefore more likely to continue playing sports if they find them fun and feel competent and confident while playing it. 56
Examining gender inequality, the main concern is the negligence regarding the provision of equal opportunities. 37 It has been suggested, in the context of coach education, that women are naturally excluded of formal learning programmes due to gender-stereotypical beliefs and expectations held by male candidates and coach educators also discouraging women from engaging fully in these programmes. 57 In line with Norman, 58 a comprehensive review of coach education from a women perspective has been lacking, as studies typically emphasize male experiences. Given the previously established gender discrepancies in coaching, 38 formal coach education programmes may be pointed as a way of starting to investigate these issues in more depth. Studies show that coaches want educational programmes that are relevant and influence directly on their ability to train, 59 once learning take place when the subject matter is deemed relevant by the learner, allowing them to examine and solve problems that influence their practice. 60 As a result, there is a discrepancy between what coach education providers believe coaches should know regarding equity in sports and what coaches face in their regular contexts. 41 In the same line, Lewis et al 37 stated that there is still a gap between coaches’ needs and what is included on coach education programmes for personal growth. As already exposed by previous studies,37,58 we agree with the need of a broader vision of coaching investigations beyond the “typical” male population. Additionally, more attention must be paid to the examination of coach education effectiveness specially for women coaches.61,62
A study from Norman 46 shown how the ideological positioning of gender equity as the search of equal opportunities shapes coach education and, consequently, coaching practice, revealing that coaches failed when defining and understanding the importance of undergoing equity training in its current form. Researchers considered that equity training did not qualified coaches to manage these topics because of how equity is currently defined by sporting governing bodies and organizations,63,64 not enabling them to deal with the current complexity of this topic within their practice. In sports organizations, emphasis must also be placed on education and training with focus on women coaches through the development of programmes that prioritize a continuous work. Women coaches can enhance their expertise and self-confidence by realizing the impact of their personal experiences in a workplace dominated by men. Programmes for women leadership to guarantee that the brightest and greatest achieve their potential, 65 focusing on analysing what have inhibited their progress in the past and what can help them advance into leadership roles in the future, are important to help women coaches in setting ambitious objectives, visions, and opportunities. 22 Prior studies showed that the supply of coach education tends to be controlled by men, frequently showing a tendency towards traits, beliefs, and characteristics related with men 66 and often exhibiting male associated behaviors, such as toughness and violence. 57 Norman 67 advocates for additional coaching and leadership opportunities for women, expressing the need for targeted coaching and support to foster confidence and expertise among women coaches.
Also, as suggested by Sterkowicz-Przybycień & Purenović-Ivanović 48 considering coaches professional activities, the individual characteristics of each sport, the targeted development of knowledge, skills and competencies required to fulfil them, need to be adapted during the preparation of the educational programmes. In the same article, authors considered that this approach may include a hierarchization of professional activities regarding each sport together with an emphasis of those activities that are subjectively most important in coaching as they relate to instructing high-level athletes. As suggested, the elaboration of an activity model can be useful for data driven optimization of already-existing programmes planned for educating future coaches and professional improvement of novice coaches. Mostly, the hierarchy of professional activities differs from sport to sport and establishing rankings of their importance in the context of success in each sport is essential for developing valid educational programmes for coaches according to their needs.
With regard to athletes’ psychological states, it is known that they can be positively improved by transformational leadership. It has been determined that one of the key components of a sustainable sports environment is coach leadership. This corresponds to an environment in which coaches offer athletes’ skill-level-based training programmes, foster athletes’ personal growth, cultivate genuine relationships with athletes, and place a greater emphasis on athletes’ health and well-being rather than on performance outcomes.68,69 Hence, to create a more sustainable environment, coaches should be aware and regularly exhibit transformational leadership behaviors that motivate athletes to target their goals and encourage to achieve them beyond expectations. 70 Given that coaches have also been linked to athlete dropout in elite and competitive sports,71,72 coaches’ leadership roles in encouraging and supporting athletes’ general well-being are even more important to maintain or raise athletes’ levels of commitment and satisfaction.73,74 In this line, the impact of females’ physiological factors, such as menstrual cycle, hormonal contraception and pregnancy, on training, performance and health are important to consider and yet, still remains underexplored,75,76 often stigmatized and a barrier to gender equality, 77 impairing an open dialogue between athletes and coaches. 78 As found by Forsyth et al., 43 these topics should be included in formal coach education as a mechanism to rise coaches’ awareness of these factors on performance outcomes and to address the problematic of menstrual cycle and hormonal contraception being taboo in many countries. 79 The understanding and knowledge developed is often linked with personal experiences 80 and is not supported by coach education providers or governing bodies. Considering male coaches, Clarke and colleagues 81 identified five clusters/topics of information that they would like to know regarding menstrual cycle: (1) training, (2) performance, (3) medical and dietary information, (4) communication, and (5) psychology. In the same article, authors identified the need for a comprehensive education framework, to improve knowledge and practices related to this topic, that must (1) improve the identification and reporting of female athletes for menstrual cycle dysfunction and related health concerns; (2) foster collaboration between athletes, coaches, medical and dietary professionals; and (3) encourage efficient communication among athletes and coaches regarding menstrual cycle. 81
Individual monitoring menstrual cycle through tracking apps can have positive effects on levels of body awareness, knowledge and understanding on the subject, user empowerment 82 and ease discussion to increase performance outcomes, giving coaches strategies to reflect while addressing this topic with their athletes. 43 Concerning pregnancy and childcare, role models are related with the athlete's decision to start a family, and the levels of assistance are linked with support systems, financial and institutional resources. 43 Associated with traditional gendered ideologies of parenting and family roles, often emerge the belief that motherhood influence career longevity 83 which recent studies have refuted 84 highlighting the need of more research in this field. Nevertheless, a pilar in these topics focuses on communication, and since the coach gender also influences the level of open dialogue with the athletes,77–79 research suggests hiring more women coaches and increasing coaches’ knowledge to foster open dialogue. This will ultimately help all women athletes more effectively to achieve better performance results or maintain participation rates. 43 Thus, for inclusion and equity purposes, is always essential to consider inner parts of female biology as their menstrual cycle, hormonal contraception, pregnancy and childcare as a possible part of them. 85 Therefore, is essential to afford support in these matters and reverse the stigma and natural behaviors that challenge the coexistence with these physiological factors. There are many ways to evolve in this field, starting with promoting knowledge and understanding on these topics, removing communication barriers between athletes and staff, implementing strategies for menstrual cycle tracking and support from teammates. 86
Specific or structural factors are not the only barriers that prevent women from rising to positions of power in their career. It is considered that, more trivial, ordinary interactions and experiences, frequently have an impact on women coaching experiences. Men often view coaching as a male entitlement due to the cultural values associated with sports. As a results, women who aspire to be successful in coaching face discrimination and mistrust, frequently experiencing a sense of obligation to validate their expertise to males who doubt or minimize them. 45 A deeper understanding of power relations in coaching and at higher levels of leadership is needed, as well as considerations of how these contributes to the underrepresentation and powerlessness of women. Considering the limited number of studies related to women coaches the assumption that gender is frequently excluded from the analyses seems inevitable. 87 However, coaches have a significant role in promoting social change and carrying out the ideals and goals of inclusion, diversity, and equality. Thus, sociocultural education is essential for coaches since they contribute significantly to the perpetuation of social exclusions in sports. 88 There is a need for a new approach to this topic so that coaches can have tools to handle this appropriately and comprehend how gender and its interaction with other relations of power impact their practice. 46
Studies show an interaction between athlete and coach gender on autocratic, democratic, and social support leadership preferences 89 which provide valuable information related to the dynamics of sport leadership environment in young athletes and the high magnitude of coaches’ gender role on the athlete–coach dyad interaction 90 and leadership style preference. 91 Findings from Norman 45 showed that social justice and ethical issues should be more studied in the context of coaching to highlight specific and important topics to include in coaching education programmes. Merge sociocultural education into coaching curriculum, can help (1) social minority in coaching profession to be the education purpose, helping women to understand the causes of their oppression, 92 and influencing social groups to potentially form a feeling of community, encouraging a collective action to advocate for change 93 and (2) it can make coaches aware of the social influence and practical aspects of their work that go beyond what is strictly scientific and practical. It is important to identify the oppressed groups in sports and describe how their oppression is systemic due to the interactions between class, race, gender, sexual orientation, and disabilities. 87 It is imperative that coaches get education on gender equity in coaching, sustained and based in real-life coaching experiences and culture, enabling them to recognize and address ethical problems raised in the reality of their practice. 45 Regarding the content of sport coaches’ education programmes, there are considerable differences in the way men and women perceive the usefulness of certain insights, with women often valuing knowledge acquisition and men prioritizing activity and skill development. 47 Recognizing these differences is essential for designing inclusive training materials and methods. Future interventions should examine intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting women coach representation across different programmes. A successful programme that incorporated a gender-sensitive educative approach was the Female Coaches and High-Performance Leadership Programme, developed by the UK Sport organization, with a total duration of six months. The authors mentioned: “In this programme a gender-sensitive, critical eye purposefully not only opened women coaches’ horizons but also the horizons of organizations within which these women coaches operated in by reflecting on old-fashioned ideologies, policies, and practices. It revealed that women coaches and coaching as a profession still faces significant challenges: organizational (e.g., biases, stereotypes, remuneration, opportunities, recognition, funding) and personal (e.g., childcare, work-life balance, responsibility)”. 14
By rethinking coach education through new theoretical frameworks, coaches can critically examine their beliefs and adopt more inclusive practices. 61 To inspire coaches to think differently about their practice, a strategy can be in line with four views of coaching knowledge, presented by Denison and Avner 61 : (1) rather than focusing solely on anatomical and physiological concepts, coach education must investigate body's holistic movements from a somatic standpoint; (2) rather than viewing the coach as the “authority” with unquestionable power, sociocultural education for coaches should encourage practitioners to view power as relational; (3) coaches may see their athletes’ identities as something that is mostly shaped in social interactions, including conversations, as opposed to seeing them as a rigid and unchanging “entity” that defines their personality and attributes; and (4) research in this field should help coaches see their methods and expertise as socially constructed rather than as a product of information based on “objective” sport science, thus, empowering coaches to imagine and create new coaching techniques on their own. An alternative theoretical approach is a sociocultural constructivist-informed ethical coaching programme for coaches providing them with the opportunity to question, consider and invent new knowledges of social justice. This approach was applied by Culp 94 advocating Gidden's structuration theory 95 across five foundation principles96,97: (i) learning is development: enable coaches to present and test their own questions and theories; (ii) disequilibrium facilitates learning across challenging, open-ended real-life setups that go against previous knowledge and assumptions; (iii) reflective abstraction is the driving force of learning; (iv) cognition and learning appear from dialogue within a community, such as a group of coaches; and (v) learning and meaning-making progresses towards the development of structural changes in perspective, thus, is essential to support coaches in challenging their own sociocultural beliefs and the coaching setting while influencing their practice.
By categorizing activities as either men or women sports and giving them meanings such as male/masculine and superior or female/feminine and inferior, sporting practices uphold male domination. 98 It is necessary to redefine equality and have a new perspective on gender equity in sports. Gender needs to be acknowledged by sporting organizations as more than merely a means of discrimination or a complement to an individual's identity, it is important to see gender as a complex net of social relations expressed in a variety of social contexts. 99 Literature supports the influence of the following social practices within sport organizations on the maintenance of a male dominance100,101: (a) formal policies and procedures; (b) informal work practices, norms, and patterns of work; (c) narratives, rhetoric, language, and other symbolic expressions; and (d) informal patterns of daily social interaction. Sporting organizations should shift their attention from focusing only on facilitators and barriers to including a wider range of people in coaching and sports, since gender, along with its relationships to other social categories, serves as an organizing element for sport. As such, one of the lenses through which we observe coaching realities must be the social construction of gender. 102 Coaches who view gender equality as an equal opportunity between genders, barely recognize the challenges involved, neglect to question fundamental and discriminatory ideas, and are unable to address equity in their practice. As a result, coaches find it difficult to recognize and handle these types of problems. 46 A more advanced sociocultural education programme for coaches is required, including a redefinition of how sports organizations handle equity and equality, enabling coaches to better navigate and address these complexities in their practice.
Conclusion
This narrative review concludes that there is a critical need for the development of educational programmes designed according to women coach's and female athlete's needs. Such programmes should comprehensively address the distinctive biological and socioeconomic challenges encountered by women, equipping them to respond with clarity and objectivity in their professional roles. Furthermore, the review underscores the importance of integrating real-life coaching experiences into educational frameworks to ensure gender equity is recognized and addressed effectively within the sporting context. A structured leadership development programme emphasizing attitude- and relationship-building competencies is essential to help coaches to meet gender-specific needs, avoiding dropout and promoting positive sport-related outcomes. Finally, enhancing awareness and refining organizational strategies to prioritize equity and equality can enable educational programmes to play a transformative role in cultivating a more inclusive and equitable sporting culture. Practical applications of the present narrative review for policymakers and institutions are displayed in Figure 2.
Practical applications of the present review for policymakers and institutions.
Limitations
The present review evaluated a limited number of articles but with a wide range of different approaches, highlighting an array of new evidence in this field. Nevertheless, given the number of variables associated with women coaches, youth and sports in Europe, the study methodologies were largely heterogenous, and we were hence unable to conduct a quantitative analysis (i.e., meta-analysis) of the collective evidence. Methodological differences were perceived largely for the type of data collection (i.e., different types of interviews and surveys), type of sport(s) involved, type of study and focus on different topics regarding women coaches.
The lack of a process to assess the quality and risk of bias of the articles selected, and the impossibility of establishing criteria recommendations based on our results are also limitations that can be considered for the present review together with the limited number of articles included that points to the scarcity in literature focused specifically on women coaches, particularly, the education programmes formulated in Europe targeting this population.
Is possible to find articles regarding the topic of the present review since the year of 1985, although there has been an increase of interest on the field leading to an exponential increase of research, there is still a lot to be discussed, and this topic will benefit from further and deeper analyse. Thus, more research is needed regarding women coaches and every aspect involved in this profession.
Future lines
This narrative review has synthesized the current state of women's youth sport coaching education in Europe, revealing both progress and persistent gaps in equity and inclusion, emphasizing the fact that meaningful progressions will require a more intentional and systemic approach from organizations involved in sports coaching education and in sports governance. Future efforts must include gender equity as a foundational principle within coach education policy and practices. It is imperative for national and international governing bodies to establish policies and guidelines that foster inclusive practices within sporting organizations. Addressing existing social structures that reinforce gender inequality requires a critical examination and a commitment to gender equity from all stakeholders. Organizations should move beyond surface-level inclusion strategies and ensure that structures, content, and delivery methods respond to the practical needs of women coaches. Equity must be defined not merely as equal access, but as the provision of a tailored support addressing the unique barriers that women face at the biological, social, and cultural levels.
Sport organizations also need to prioritize the development of leadership and mentorship programmes specifically designed for women. These initiatives should critically examine what has limited women's progression in the past and offer strategies for building ambition, resilience, and leadership skills. Continuous, thoughtful learning opportunities can help women coaches to remain and to succeed in coaching careers. Furthermore, recruitment and hiring processes must become more intentional in closing gender gaps. Transparent, equity-focused approaches to employment, and workplace support can significantly enhance the visibility and influence of women coaches. Recognizing and addressing the differences between men and women engagement with coach education also allows for the design of more inclusive training models. Also, future research should employ both theory-driven and mixed-methods approaches to enhance our understanding of the factors that influence women participation in sports and to create effective strategies for disrupting cultural norms that perpetuate gender disparities, using a gender-sensitive approach, ultimately fostering greater inclusion and representation in coaching roles.
Additionally, coach education programmes should include core content on gender equity, identity, and sociocultural awareness. Topics such as menstrual health, communication barriers, and ethical challenges in coaching must be normalized in coaches’ education to better prepare them for the diversity in athletic population. Ultimately, a coordinated, multi-level strategy is required to reshape coach education across Europe. By integrating gender equity into policy, pedagogy, and organizational culture, sports institutions can play a critical role in building a more inclusive and sustainable coaching workforce, one that fully values and supports the contributions of women in youth sport.
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
The Erasmus + project Consortium from Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Fundacja Institute for Sport Governance, Aristotelio Panepistimio Thessalonikis, Asocijacija Sport Za Sve Srbije, Associação para o Desenvolvimento do Desporto Jovem – ADDJ, Universitat de Girona, Universidad del Pais Vasco/ Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea and Comité Olímpico Cabo-Verdiano.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was conducted in the framework of an EU project (2024–2026) supported under the Erasmus + programme (Project number: 101134453).
