The research about soccer defensive phase shows many limitations regarding the procedures and operational definitions. The aims of this paper are to create an observational instrument based on Dynamic Systems concepts and evidence sufficient content validity to adequately and reliably recode defensive soccer behaviours. For these, a five-stage development process for validity was followed: (1) an initial literature review, instrument development, observation training; (2) adapting an existing systematic observational instrument; (3) pilot study with non-experts; (4) content validity with experts (coaches and researchers) and (5) inter- and intra-observer reliability. Using Aiken’s V coefficient and its cut-off value to determine validity content, consensus was found (V > 0.67, n = 32, p < 0.05) for all items answered by participants in pilot study and for almost all subjects in the experts’ study (V > 0.69, n = 12, p < 0.05). Also, Cohen’s Kappa shows inter- and intra-reliability values of 0.87 and 0.90, respectively. The final model, entitled Theoretical Dynamic Model of Soccer Defence, and the observational instrument, named Soccer-Defence, with 14 criteria and category systems, and 106 categories, seems to be suitable for analysing the defensive process in soccer and could be used to find strengths or weaknesses of tactical–technical defensive patterns of play and to help coaches to better prepare their teams.
Garganta J. Dos constrangimentos da acção à liberdade de (inter)acção, para um Futebol com pés… e cabeça. In: Araújo D (ed.) O contexto da decisão A acção táctica no desporto. Lisboa: Visão e Contextos; 2005, pp.179–190.
2.
MackenzieRCushionC. Performance analysis in football: a critical review and implications for future research. J Sports Sci2013; 31: 639–676.
3.
GréhaigneJFBouthierDDavidB. Dynamic-system analysis of opponent relationships in collective actions in soccer. J Sports Sci1997; 15: 1371–49.
4.
Vilar L, Torrents C, Araújo D, et al. Ecological dynamics as an alternative framework to notational performance analysis in Complex Systems in Sport. In: Davids K, Hristovski R, Araújo D (eds) Complex systems in sport. New York: Routledge, 2014, pp.229–240.
5.
GréhaigneJFGodboutP. Dynamic systems theory and team sport coaching. Quest2014; 66: 96–116.
6.
Davids K, Araújo D and Shuttleworth R. Applications of dynamical systems theory to football. In: Reilly T, Cabri J, Araújo D (eds) Science and football V. Oxon: Routledge, Taylor & Francis, 2005, pp.537–550.
7.
NevillAAtkinsonGHughesM. Twenty-five years of sport performance research in the Journal of Sports Sciences. J Sports Sci2008; 26: 413–426.
8.
SarmentoHMarcelinoRAngueraMTet al.Match analysis in football: a systematic review. J Sports Sci2014; 32: 1831–1843.
9.
JamesN. Notational analysis in soccer: past, present and future. Int J Perform Anal Sport2006; 6: 67–81.
10.
ReinRMemmertD. Big data and tactical analysis in elite soccer: future challenges and opportunities for sports science. Springerplus2016; 5: 1410.
11.
BarreiraDGargantaJCastellanoJet al.How elite-level soccer dynamics has evolved over the last three decades? Input from generalizability theory. Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte2015; 15: 51–62.
12.
Fernández-HermógenesDCamerinoOGarcíaAdA. Acciones ofensivas a balón parado en el fútbol. Apunts Educación Física y Deportes2017; 129: 78–94.
13.
CasalCAndujarMLosadaJet al.Identification of defensive performance factors in the 2010 FIFA World Cup South Africa. Sports2016; 4: 54.
14.
BrewerCJonesL. A five-stage process for establishing contextually valid systematic observation instruments: the case of Rugby Union. Sports Psychol2002; 16: 138–159.
15.
SullivanGM. A primer on the validity of assessment instruments. J Grad Med Educ2011; 3: 119–120.
16.
American Educational Research Association APA, National Council on Measurement in Education and Joint Committee on Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: AERA, 2014.
17.
HealeRTwycrossA. Validity and reliability in quantitative studies. Evid Based Nurs2015, pp. 18: 66–67.
18.
TaherdoostH. Validity and reliability of the research instrument: how to test the validation of a questionnaire/survey in a research. Int J Acad Res Manage2016; 5: 28–2.
19.
CobbNMUnnithanVMcRobertAP. The validity, objectivity, and reliability of a soccer-specific behaviour measurement tool. Sci Med Football2018; 2: 196–202.
20.
PrudenteJGargantaJAngueraM. Desenho e validação de um sistema de observação no andebol. Rev Port Cien Des2004; 4: 49–65.
21.
CushionCHarveySMuirBet al.Developing the coach analysis and intervention system (CAIS): establishing validity and reliability of a computerised systematic observation instrument. J Sports Sci2012; 30: 201–216.
22.
BarreiraDGargantaJPrudenteJet al.Desenvolvimento e validação de um sistema de observação aplicado à fase ofensiva em Futebol: SoccerEye. Rev Port Cien Desp2012; 12: 32–57.
23.
FitzpatrickAR. The meaning of content validity. Appl Psychol Meas1983; 7: 3–13.
Ruiz-RuizCFraduaLFernandez-GarciaAet al.Analysis of entries into the penalty area as a performance indicator in soccer. Eur J Sport Sci2013; 13: 241–248.
26.
SarmentoHLeitãoJAngueraMTet al.Observational methodology in football: development of an instrument to study the offensive game in football. Motricidade2009; 5: 19–24.
27.
BradleyPSArcherDTHoggBet al.Tier-specific evolution of match performance characteristics in the English Premier League: it’s getting tougher at the top. J Sports Sci2016; 34: 980–987.
28.
CasteloJ. Futebol a organização do jogo como entender a organização dinâmica de uma equipa de futebol e a partir desta compreensão como melhorar o rendimento e a direcção dos jogadores e da equipa, Lisbon: Jorge Castelo, 1996.
29.
Barreira D. Tendências evolutivas da dinâmica tática em Futebol de alto rendimento. Estudo da fase ofensiva nos Campeonatos da Europa e do Mundo, entre 1982 e 2010. PhD Thesis, University of Porto, Porto, 2013.
Garganta J. Modelação táctica do jogo de Futebol: Estudo da organização da fase ofensiva em equipas de alto rendimento. PhD Thesis, University of Porto, Porto, 1997.
32.
TengaAKanstadDRonglanLTet al.Developing a new method for team match performance analysis in professional soccer and testing its reliability. Int J Perform Anal Sport2009; 9: 8–25.
33.
HughesMCaudrelierTJamesNet al.Moneyball and soccer – an analysis of the key performance indicators of elite male soccer players by position. J Hum Sport Exerc2012; 7: 402–412.
34.
SuzukiKNishijimaT. Validity of a soccer defending skill scale (SDSS) using game performances. Int J Sport Health Sci2004; 2: 34–49.
35.
BangsboJPeitersenB. Defensive soccer tactics, Champaign: Human Kinetics, 2002.
36.
Fidelis AJM, García-Tormo JV and Morante-Rábago JC. Análisis de la eficacia de las acciones de pressing en partidos de fútbol en función de los sectores del campo. Lecturas Educación Física y Deportes, Revista Digital, www.efdeportes.com (2012, 14 September 2017).
37.
AngueraM. Metodología de la observación en las Ciencias Humanas Madrid, Madrid: Ediciones Cátedra, 1978.
38.
CostaITGargantaJGrecoPJet al.Análise e avaliação do comportamento tático no futebol. Revista da Educação Física/UEM2010, pp. 21: 443–455.
39.
Clemente FM, Martins FML, Couceiro MS, et al. Developing a football tactical metric to estimate the sectorial lines: a case study. In: Murgante B, Misra S, Rocha A, et al. (eds) Computational science and its applications – ICCSA 2014, Pt 1. Lecture notes in computer science, Guimarães, Portugal, 30 June–3 July, pp.743–753. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
40.
AikenLR. Content validity and reliability of single items or questionnaires. Educ Psychol Meas1980; 40: 955–959.
41.
DunnJBouffardMRogersW. Assessing content-relevance in sport psychology scale-construction research: issues and recommendations. Meas Phys Educ Exerc Sci1999; 3: 15–36.
42.
PenfieldRDGiacobbiJPR. Applying a score confidence interval to Aiken’s item content-relevance index. Meas Phys Educ Exerc Sci2004; 8: 213–225.
43.
García-SantosDIbáñezSJ. Design and validation of an observational instrument to basketball referee evaluation (IOVAB). Revista Euroamericana de Ciencias del Deporte2016; 5: 15–26.
44.
CohenJ. A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educ Psychol Meas1960; 20: 37–46.
45.
FleissJ. Statistical methods for rates and proportions, 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1981.
46.
BakemanRQueraV. Análisis de la interacción: Análisis secuencial con SDIS y GSEQ, Madrid: Ra-Ma, 1996.
47.
AlmeidaCHFerreiraAPVolossovitchA. Effects of match location, match status and quality of opposition on regaining possession in UEFA champions league. J Hum Kinet2014; 41: 203–214.
48.
Fernandez-NavarroJFordPRMcRobertAPet al.Attacking and defensive styles of play in soccer: analysis of Spanish and English elite teams. J Sports Sci2016; 34: 2195–2204.
49.
CamerinoOCastañerMAngueraM. Mixed methods research in the movement sciences: case studies in sport, physical education and dance, New York: Routledge, 2012.
50.
LiuHYHopkinsWGGomezMA. Modelling relationships between match events and match outcome in elite football. Eur J Sport Sci2015; 16: 516–525.
51.
CastanerMBarreiraDCamerinoOet al.Mastery in goal scoring, T-pattern detection, and polar coordinate analysis of motor skills used by Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo. Front Psychol2017; 8: 741.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
