This article aims to investigate the link between lab-measured material properties and whole building performance of rammed earth (RE) walls through characterization at laboratory scale and numerical simulations using combined heat and moisture transfer models at whole building (WB) scale. RE buildings are known as an energy-efficient solution in hot climates and are low-carbon construction since local unfired earth is used as construction material. Nevertheless, the behavior of such buildings under different internal and external loads needs additional investigations. The present study explores the use of unstabilized RE walls, with and without the use of painting, three bio-stabilized RE and conventional concrete walls for comparison. The simulation includes climate conditions from Central Europe and North Africa, along with typical residential and tertiary occupancy scenarios. To identify the contribution of RE materials in controlling the indoor climate, the investigation covers a total of 24 configurations of six wall materials, two locations, and two occupancy scenarios. Results are analyzed by comparing heating demand, summer thermal comfort, and relative humidity levels. Furthermore, the hygrothermal properties of bio-stabilized RE are experimentally determined, to confirm the choice of using only moisture-dependent parameters. Experimental investigations focus on the influence of temperature on sorption isotherm, hysteresis, adsorption kinetics, and moisture buffer value (MBV). The results of this investigation show that thermal properties measured at the material scale seem to have a direct link with results at the whole building scale for heating demand and summer thermal comfort for uninsulated walls, while a more complex behavior is related to the hygroscopic properties, due mainly to the combined effect of the kinetics of adsorption and vapor permeability of the material.
AllinsonDHallM (2010) Hygrothermal analysis of a stabilised rammed earth test building in the UK. Energy and Buildings42(6): 845–852.
2.
AmzianeSColletFLawrenceM, et al. (2017) Recommendation of the RILEM TC 236-BBM: Characterisation testing of hemp shiv to determine the initial water content, water absorption, dry density, particle size distribution and thermal conductivity. Materials and Structures50: 1–11.
3.
Annual Book of ASTM Standards (2007) ASTM D1557-07 Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort. International West Conshohocken.
4.
AnsahMKChenXYangH, et al. (2020) An integrated life cycle assessment of different façade systems for a typical residential building in Ghana. Sustainable Cities and Society53: 101974.
5.
ArrigoniAGrilletACPelosatoR, et al. (2017) Reduction of rammed earth’s hygroscopic performance under stabilisation: An experimental investigation. Building and Environment115: 358–367.
6.
Arris-RoucanSMcGregorFFabbriA, et al. (2023) Towards the determination of carbon dioxide retention in earthen materials. Building and Environment239: 110415.
7.
ArundelAVSterlingEMBigginJH, et al. (1986) Indirect health effects of relative humidity in indoor environments. Environmental Health Perspectives65(3): 351–361.
8.
American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers(2009) Handbook HVAC Fundamentals, Ashrae. American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
9.
BassoudAKhelafiHMokhtariAM, et al. (2021) Evaluation of summer thermal comfort in arid desert areas. Case study: Old adobe building in Adrar (South of Algeria). Building and Environment205: 108140.
10.
BeckettCTSCardell-OliverRCiancioD, et al. (2017) Measured and simulated thermal behaviour in rammed earth houses in a hot-arid climate. Part B: Comfort. Journal of Building Engineering13: 146–158.
11.
BeckettCTSCardell-OliverRCiancioD, et al. (2018) Measured and simulated thermal behaviour in rammed earth houses in a hot-arid climate. Part A: Structural behaviour. Journal of Building Engineering15: 243–251.
12.
Ben-AlonLLoftnessVHarriesKA, et al. (2021) Life cycle assessment (LCA) of natural vs conventional building assemblies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews144: 110951.
13.
Ben-AlonLRempelAR (2023) Thermal comfort and passive survivability in earthen buildings. Building and Environment44: 110339.
14.
BrunoAW (2016) Hygro-mechanical characterisation of hypercompacted earth for building construction, PhD Thesis, Genova.
15.
BrunoAWGallipoliDPerlotC, et al. (2017) Effect of stabilisation on mechanical properties, moisture buffering and water durability of hypercompacted earth. Construction and Building Materials149: 733–740.
16.
CSTB (2006) Classement des locaux en fonction de l’exposition à l’humidité des parois et nomenclature des supports pour revêtements muraux intérieurs. e-Cahiers du CSTB356: 1–8.
17.
DarlingEKCrosCJWargockiP, et al. (2012) Impacts of a clay plaster on indoor air quality assessed using chemical and sensory measurements. Building and Environment57: 370–376.
18.
Direction Collectif Terre Crue (2018) Buge - Guide des bonnes pratiques de la constuction en terre crue, edition 13 decembre.
19.
DutraLF (2005) Development of an innovative material of high hygrothermal performance. PhD Thesis, Universite Grenoble Alpes.
20.
EN. (2012) EN 15251 (2012) - Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics, European Standard. Available at: https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=CEN%2C+EN+15251&btnG=(accessed 2019).
21.
FabbriAMcGregorFCostaI, et al. (2017) Effect of temperature on the sorption curves of earthen materials. Materials and Structures50(6): 253.
22.
FernandesJMateusRGervásioH, et al. (2019) Passive strategies used in Southern Portugal vernacular rammed earth buildings and their influence in thermal performance. Renewable Energy142: 345–363.
23.
GoffartJRabouilleMMendesN (2017) Uncertainty and sensitivity analysis applied to hygrothermal simulation of a brick building in a hot and humid climate. Journal of Building Performance Simulation10(1): 37–57.
24.
GuihéneufSRangeardDPerrotA (2019) Addition of bio based reinforcement to improve workability, mechanical properties and water resistance of earth-based materials. Academic Journal of Civil Engineering37: 138.
25.
GuihéneufSRangeardDPerrotA, et al. (2020) Effect of bio-stabilizers on capillary absorption and water vapour transfer into raw earth. Materials and Structures53(6): 138.
26.
HaleSERoqueAJOkkenhaugG, et al. (2021) The reuse of excavated soils from construction and demolition projects: Limitations and possibilities. Sustainability13(11): 6083.
27.
HeitzPMorelJCFabbriA, et al. (2015) L’ Isolation du pisé: Pertinence et principes. LGCB-ENTPE - TransLettre août2015 : 1–12.
28.
IlmanBBalkisAP (2023) Sustainable biopolymer stabilized earthen: Utilization of chitosan biopolymer on mechanical, durability, and microstructural properties. Journal of Building Engineering76: 107220.
29.
ISO 12571:2013(E) (2013) International Standard Hygrothermal performance of building materials and products — Determination of hygroscopic sorption properties.
30.
JaquinPAAugardeCEGerrardCM (2008) Chronological description of the spatial development of rammed Earth techniques. International Journal of Architectural Heritage2(4): 377–400.
31.
JiangBTanJWanL, et al. (2023) Hygrothermal parameters measurement and building performance study of modified rammed earth materials. Energy and Buildings299: 113609.
32.
JiangBWuTXiaW, et al. (2020) Hygrothermal performance of rammed earth wall in Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan Province of China. Building and Environment, 181: 107128.
33.
KünzelHM (1995) Simultaneous Heat and Moisture Transport in Building Components One- and Two-Dimensional Calculation Using Simple Parameters. Fraunhofer Institute of Building Physics.
34.
LabatMWoloszynM (2016) Moisture balance assessment at room scale for four cases based on numerical simulations of heat–air–moisture transfers for a realistic occupancy scenario. Journal of Building Performance Simulation9(5): 487–509.
35.
LalicataLMBrunoAWGallipoliD (2023) Hygro-thermal coupling in earth building materials. In: E3S Web of Conferences, Mylos, Grece, UNSAT conference, 2–5 may 2023, pp.1–6.
36.
LarcherMLeonardiETroiA, et al. (2025) Assessing the impact of moisture buffering properties of materials on indoor environmental quality: A study on a recycled material plaster. Building and Environment267: 112170.
37.
LosiniAE (2021) Rammed earth stabilization with waste or recycled materials and natural additives: Characterizations and simulations. Phd Thesis, Universite Savoie Mont Blanc, Génie Civil et Sciences de l’Habitat.
38.
LosiniAEGrilletACWoloszynM, et al. (2022) Mechanical and microstructural characterization of rammed earth stabilized with five biopolymers. Materials15(9): 3136.
39.
LosiniAEGrilletACVoL, et al. (2023) Biopolymers impact on hygrothermal properties of rammed earth: From material to building scale. Bulging and Environment233: 110087.
40.
LuoYYinBPengX, et al. (2019) Wind-rain erosion of Fujian Tulou Hakka Earth Buildings. Sustainable Cities and Society50: 101666.
41.
McGregorFFabbriAFerreiraJ, et al. (2017) Procedure to determine the impact of the surface film resistance on the hygric properties of composite clay/fibre plasters. Materials and Structures50(4): 193.
42.
McGregorFHeathAFoddeE, et al. (2014a) Conditions affecting the moisture buffering measurement performed on compressed earth blocks. Building and Environment75: 11–18.
43.
McGregorFHeathASheaA, et al. (2014b) The moisture buffering capacity of unfired clay masonry. Building and Environment82: 599–607.
44.
McGregorFHeathAMaskellD, et al. (2016) A review on the buffering capacity of earth building materials. Proceedings of Institution of Civil Engineers: Construction Materials169: 241–251.
45.
MikofskyRAArmisteadSJSrubarWV (2023) On the bonding characteristics of clays and biopolymers for sustainable earthen construction. In: AmzianeSMertaIPageJ (eds). BT - Bio-Based Building Materials. Springer Nature, pp.280–292.
46.
NoualiMGhorbelE (2024) Hygro-thermo-mechanical properties of tunnel excavated earth-based plasters. Journal of Building Physics47(6): 651–671.
47.
PetcuCDobrescuCFDragomirCS, et al. (2023) Thermophysical characteristics of clay for efficient rammed earth wall construction. Materials16(17): 6015.
48.
PoirierBGuyotGGeoffroyH, et al. (2021) Pollutants emission scenarios for residential ventilation performance assessment. A review. Journal of Building Engineering42: 102488.
49.
RamosNMMDelgadoJMPQde FreitasVP (2010) Influence of finishing coatings on hygroscopic moisture buffering in building elements. Construction and Building Materials24(12): 2590–2597.
50.
RodeC (2005) Moisture Buffering of Building Materials. Department of Civil Engineering Technical University of Denmark.
51.
SamadianfardSToufighV (2023) Stabilization effect on the hygrothermal performance of rammed earth materials. Construction and Building Materials409: 134025.
52.
SoudaniL (2016) Modelling and experimental validation of the hygrothermal performances of earth as a building material. PhD Thesis, University of Lyon.
53.
SoudaniLWoloszynMFabbriA, et al. (2017) Energy evaluation of rammed earth walls using long term in-situ measurements. Solar Energy141: 70–80.
54.
SpositoSScalisiF (2017) Sustainable architecture: The eco-efficiency earth construction’, European Journal of Sustainable Development6(4): 246–254.
55.
StefanoiuA (2017) Towards Performance Evaluation of Energy Efficient Buildings. Université Grenoble Alpes.
56.
TanJLiangJWanL, et al. (2022) Influence of non-constant hygrothermal parameters on heat and moisture transfer in rammed earth walls. Buildings12(8): 1077.
57.
ThommesMKanekoKNeimarkAV, et al. (2015) Physisorption of gases, with special reference to the evaluation of surface area and pore size distribution (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure and Applied Chemistry87(9–10): 1051–1069.
58.
TrambitskiYKizinievičOGasparF, et al. (2023) Eco-friendly unfired clay materials modified by natural polysaccharides. Construction and Building Materials400: 132783.
WoloszynMRodeC (2008) Modelling Principles and Common Exercises, 1November.
61.
WuMJohannessonBGeikerM (2014) Application of water vapor sorption measurements for porosity characterization of hardened cement pastes. Construction and Building Materials66: 621–633.
62.
ZhangLSangGHanW (2020) Effect of hygrothermal behaviour of earth brick on indoor environment in a desert climate. Sustainable Cities and Society55: 102070.
