Exercise-induced asthma (E.I.A) affects 12–16% of the general population and most of the patients affected by extrinsic or intrinsic asthma. Surprisingly, also a high percentage of professional and Olympic athletes are affected, showing that E.I.A. does not impair physical activity, whereas endurance sports bear a higher risk than the others. The mast cell role, late asthmatic responses, diagnosis, therapy, theories and data about immunological parameters in sports are taken into consideration in this review.
AndersonS.D.1985. Issues in exercise-induced asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.76:763.
2.
McFaddenE.R.Jr.GilbertI.A.1994. Exercise-induced asthma. N. Engl. J. Med.330:1362.
3.
BackerV.UlrikC.S.1992. Bronchial responsiveness to exercise in a random sample of 494 children and adolescents from Copenhagen. Clin. Exp. Allergy22:741.
4.
BundgaardA.1981. Incidence of exercise-induced asthma in adult asthmatic. Allergy36:23.
5.
FourieP.R.JoubertJ.R.1988. Determination of airway hyperreactivity in asthmatic children: A comparison among exercise, nebulised water and histamine challenges. Pediatr. Pulmonol.4:2.
6.
CarlsenK.H.EnghG.MorkM.SchroederE.1998. Cold air inhalation and exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in relationship to methacholine bronchial responsiveness: Different patterns in asthmatic children and children with other chronic lung diseases. Respir. Med.92:308.
7.
HeleniusI.HaahtelaT.2000. Allergy and asthma in elite summer sport athletes. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.106:444.
8.
SaranzR.J.CroceV.H.CroceJ.S.2001. Respuesta bronquial al ejercicio en niños y adolescentes con rinitis alérgica (unpublished data).
9.
KawaboriJ.PiersonW.E.ConquestL.L.BiermanC.W.1976. Incidence of exercise induced asthma in children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.58:447.
10.
CustovicA.ArifhodzicN.RobinsonA.WoodcookA.1994. Exercise testing revisited: The response to exercise in normal and atopic children. Chest105:1127.
11.
RasmussenF.LambrechtsenJ.SierstedH.C.HansenH.S.HansenN.C.1999. Asymptomatic bronchial hyperresponsiveness to exercise in childhood and the development of asthma related symptoms in young adulthood: The Odense Schoolchild Study. Thorax54:587.
12.
FloyerJ.A.1698. In Treatise of the Asthma, ed. WilkinR.London, p.1.
13.
SalterH.H.1864. In Asthma: Its Pathology and Treatment, ed. Blanchard and LeaPhiladelphia, p. 132.
14.
AndersonS.D.1984. Is there a unifing hypotesis for exercise-induced asthma?J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.73:600.
15.
AndersonS.D.DaviskasE.1999. Airway drying and exercise-induced asthma. In Exercise Induced asthma. McFaddenE.R.Jr., ed. Marcel DekkerNew York, p.77.
16.
AndersonS.D.DaviskasE.BiomedE.M.2000. The mechanism of exercise induced asthma is …J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.106:453.
17.
ArgyrosG.J.PhillipsY.Y.RayburnD.B.RosentalR.R.JaegerJ.J.1993. Water loss without heat flux in exercise-induced bronchospasm. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis.1147:1419.
18.
McFaddenE.R.LennerK.A.StrohlK.P.1986. Postexertional airway rewarming and thermally induced asthma. J. Clin. Invest.78:18.
19.
McFaddenE.R.Jr.GilbertI.A.1999. Exercise-induced asthma as a vascular phenomenon. In Exercise Induced asthma. McFaddenE.R.Jr., ed. Marcel DekkerNew York, p. 115.
20.
McFaddenE.R.JrNelsonJ. A.SkowronskiM.E.LennerK.A.1999. Thermally induced asthma and airway drying. Am. Respir. Crit. Care Med.160:1221.
21.
ManningP.J.WatsonR.M.O'ByrneP.M.1993. Exercise-induced refractoriness in asthmatic subjects involves leukotriene and prostaglandin interdependent mechanisms. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis.148:950.
22.
MelilloE.WoolleyK.L.ManningP.J.WatsonR.M.O'ByrneP.M.1994. Effect of inhaled PGE2 on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in asthmatic subjects. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.149:1138.
23.
O'ByrneP.M.JonesG.L.1986. The effect of indomethacin on exercise–induced bronchoconstriction and refractoriness after exercise. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis.134:69.
24.
VengeP.HenriksenJ.DahlR.1991. Eosinophils in exercise-induced asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.88:699.
25.
YoshikawaT.ShojiS.FujiiT.KanazawaH.KudohS.HirataK.YoshikawaJ.1998. Severity of exercise-induced bronchoconstriction is related to airway eosinophilic inflammation in patients with asthma. Eur. Respir. J.12:879.
26.
KivityS.ArgamanA.OnnA.ShwartzY.ManA.GreifJ.FiremanE.2000. Eosinophil influx into the airways in patients with exercise-induced asthma. Respir. Med.94:1200.
27.
BruunsgaardH.GalboH.Halkjaer-KristensenJ.JohansenT.L.MacLeanD.A.PedersenB.K.1997. Exercise-induced increase in serum interleukin-6 in humans is related to muscle damage. J. Physiol.15:833.
28.
CannonJ.G.FieldingR.A.FiataroneM.A.OrencoleS.F.DinarelloC.A.EvansW.J.1989. Increased interleukin 1 beta in human skeletal muscle after exercise. Am. J. Physiol.26:R451.
29.
SteensbergA.KellerC.StarkieR.L.OsadaT.FebbraioM.A.PedersenB.K.2002. IL-6 and TNF-alpha expression in, and release from, contracting human skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.283:E1272.
30.
Del GiaccoS.R.SerraP.TorrazzaM.BarcaM.P.MuraM.N.ArgiolasF.ScorcuM.ConcuA.ManconiP.E.Del GiaccoG.S.2002. Intracellular cytokines profile in professional athletes: Implication on allergic disordersAllergy57 (S):19.
31.
Del GiaccoS.R.ManconiP.E.Del GiaccoG.S.2001. Allergy and Sports. Allergy56:215.
32.
DahlR.HenriksenJ.M.1980. Development of late asthmatic reactions after allergen or exercise challenge test. Eur. J. Respir. Dis.61:320.
33.
ZawadskiD.K.LennerK.A.McFaddenE.R.Jr.1988. Re-examination of the late asthmatic response to exercise. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis.137:837.
34.
CrimiE.BalboA.MilaneseM.MiadonnaA.RossiG.BrusascoV.1992. Airway inflammation and ocurrence of delayed bronchoconstriction in exercise-induced asthma. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis.146:507.
35.
LeeT.H.NagakuraT.PapageorgiouN.IikuraY.KayA.B.1983. Exercise induced late asthmatic reactions with neutrophil chemotactic activity. N. Engl. J. Med.308:1502.
36.
BonerA.NieroE.AntoliniI.WarnerJ.O.1985. Biphasic (early and late) asthmatic responses to exercise in children with severe asthma, residente at high altitude. Eur. J. Pediatr.144:164.
37.
SanoF.SoléD.NaspitzC.K.1998Prevalence and characteristics of exercise-induced asthma in childrenPediatr. Allergy Immunol.9:181.
38.
BonerA.L.ValloneG.ChiesaM.SpezlaE.FambriL.SetteL.1992. Reproducibility of late phase pulmonary response to exercise and its relationship to bronchial Hyperreactivity in children whith chronic asthma. Pediatr. Pulmonol.14:156.
39.
EdmundsA.T.TooleyM.GodfreyS.1978. The refractory period after exercise-induced asthma: Its duration and relation to the severity of exercise. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis.117:247.
40.
MussaffiH.SpringerC.GodfreyS.1986. Increased bronchial responsiveness to exercise and histamine after allergen challenge in asthmatic children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.77:48.
41.
SaranzR.J.ArujR.E.BadaraccoV.C.1987. Análisis de la respuesta al test de esfuerzo en niños asmáticos. Arch. Arg. Pediatr.85:157.
42.
WeilerJ.M.1996. Exercise-induced asthma: A practical guide to definitions, diagnosis, prevalence and treatment. Allergy Asthma Proc.17:315.
43.
SaranzR.J.1997. Diagnóstico funcional y estudio de la hiperreactividad bronquial en asma rinitis alérgica. Arch. Arg. Alergia Inmunol. Clin.28:18.
44.
ERS Task Force on Standardization of Clinical Exercise Testing. 1997. Clinical exercise testing with reference to lung diseases: Indications, standardization and interpretation strategies. Eur. Respir. J.10:2662.
45.
ATS. 2000. Guidelines for methacholine and exercise challenge testing – 1999. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.161:309.
46.
PriceJ.F.2001. Choices of therapy for exercise-induced asthma in children. Allergy56(S66):12.
47.
American Academy of Pediatrics. Section on Allergy and Immunology and Section on Diseases of the Chest. 1989. Exercise and the asthmatic child. Pediatrics84:392.
48.
WaalkansH.J.van Essen-ZandvlietE.E.GerritsenJ.DuivermanE.J.KerrebijnK.F.KnolK.1993. The effect of an inhaled corticosteroid (budesonide) on exercise-induced asthma in children. Eur. Respir. J.6:652.
49.
FreezerN.J.CroasdellH.DoullI.J.M.HolgateS.T.1995. Effect of regular inhaled beclomethasone on exercise and methacholine airway responses in school children with recurrent wheeze. Eur. Respir. J.8:488.
50.
ThioB.J.SlingerlandG.L.NagelkerkeA.F.RoordJ.J.MulderP.G.Dankert-RoelseJ.E.2001. Effects of single-dose fluticasone on exercise-induced asthma in asthmatic children: A pilot study. Pediatr. Pulmonol.232:115.
51.
SpoonerC.RoweB.H.SaundersL.D.2000. Nedocromil sodium in the treatment of exercise-induced asthma: A meta-analysis. Eur. Respir. J.16:30.
52.
WoolleyM.AndersonS.D.QuigleyB.M.1990. Duration of protective effect of terbutaline sulfate and cromolyn sodium alone and in combination on exercise-induced asthma. Chest97:39.
53.
SaranzR.J.1998. Beta 2 agonistas en asma: Estado actual del debate. Alergia Inmunol. Clin.XV:163.
54.
AndersonS.D.RodwellL.T.Du ToitJ.YoungI.H.1991. Duration of protection by inhaled salmeterol in exercise-induced asthma. Chest100:1254.
55.
BartowR.A.BrogdenR.N.1998. Formoterol: An update of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy in the management of asthma. Drugs55:303.
56.
BisgaardH.2000. Long-acting _2 agonists in management of childhood asthma: A critical review of the literature. Pediatr. Pulmonol.29:221.
57.
NelsonJ.A.StraussL.SkowronskiM.CiufoR.NovakR.McFaddenE.R.1998. Effect of long term salmeterol treatment on exercise induced asthma. N. Engl. J. Med.339:141.
58.
SimonsF.E.R.GerstnerT.V.CheangM.S.1997. Tolerance to the bronchoprotective effect of salmeterol in adolescents with exercise-induced asthma using concurrent inhaled glucocorticoid treatment. Pediatrics99:655.
59.
NathanR.A.1998. Is the tolerance to the bronchoprotective effect of salmeterol clinically relevant?. Ann. Alllergy, Asthma Immunol.80:1.
60.
PizzichiniE.LeffJ.A.ReissT.F.HendelesL.BouletL.P.WeiA.X.EfthimiadisA.E.ZhangJ.HargreaveF.E.1999. Montelukast reduces airway eosinophilic inflammation in asthma: A randomized controlled trial. Eur. Repir. J.14:12.
61.
KempJ.P.DockhornR.J.ShapiroG.G.NguyenH.H.ReissT.F.SeidenbergB.C.KnorrB.1998. Montelukast once daily inhibits exercise-induced bronchoconstriction in 6 to 14 year old children with asthma. J. Pediatr.133:424.
62.
CorenoA.SkowronskiM.KotaruC.McFaddenE.R.Jr.2000. Comparative effects of long-acting beta 2 agonists, leukotriene receptor antagonists, and a 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor on exercise-induced asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.106:500.
63.
VillaránC.O'NeillS.J.HelblingA.van NoordJ.A.LeeT.H.ChuchalinA.G.LangleyS.J.GunawardenaK.A. and the Montelukast/Salmeterol Exercise Study Group. 1999. Montelukast versus salmeterol in patients with asthma and exercise-induced bronchoconstriction. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.104:547.
64.
EdelmanJ.M. J.A.TurpinE.A.BronskyJ.GrossmanJ.P.KempA.F.GhannamP.T.DeLucca for the Exercise Study Group. 2000. Oral montelukast compared with inhaled salmeterol to prevent exercise-induced brochoconstriction. Ann. Intern. Med.132:97.
65.
DessangesJ.F.PrefautC.TaytardA.MatranR.NayaI.CompagnonA.Dinh-XuanA.T.1999. The effect of zafirlukast on repetitive exercise-induced bronchoconstriction: The possible role of leukotrienes in exercise-induced refractoriness. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.104:1155.
66.
EllisE.F.1984. Inhibition of exercise–induced asthma by theophylline. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.73:690.
67.
NovembreE.FrongiaG.LombardiE.VenerusoG.VierucciA.1994. The preventive effect of nedocromil or furosemide alone or in combination on exercise-induced asthma in children. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.94:201.
68.
PatelK.R.1981. The effect of calcium antagonist, nifedipine in exercise-induced asthma. Clin. Allergy11:429.
69.
PiersonW.E.FurukawaC.T.ShapiroG.G.1989. Terfenadine blockade of exercise-induced bronchospasm. Ann. Allergy63:461.
70.
GongH.JrTashkinD.P.DauphineeB.DjahedB.WuT.C.1990. Effects of oral cetirizine, a selective H1 antagonist on allergen and exercise induced bronchoconstriction in subjects with asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.85:632.
71.
AhmedT.GarrigoJ.DantaI.1993. Preventing bronchoconstriction in exercise-induced asthma with inhaled heparin. N. Engl. J. Med.329:90.
