Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

Textile and fiber materials lead in combination with nanomaterials to innovative and functional products of high scientific interest. However, also industrial and consumer products are based on this combination. With this background, the current review presents and categorizes different nanomaterials in respect to their application on textiles. The main goal of the current review paper is to present nanomaterials and its possibilities in combination with textiles for achievement of new and functional materials. For this, several types of materials are presented in detail, as sol-gel coatings, effect pigments, electro spinning and many more. Also, a view on several applications and functionalities is given, as photoactivity, luminescence, antimicrobial properties etc. Altogether a structural paper is supported guiding the reader through this topic concerning those innovative materials.

Keywords

Textiles fabrics fiber sol-gel effect pigment electrospinning surface structuring photoactive

Introduction

The combination of nanomaterials and textiles seems in the first and common view to be the combination of an innovative future oriented technology together with a traditional and conventional material as a textile. However, this first view is not justified by facts. Nanomaterials were already discussed and described more than 100 years ago by the German chemist Wolfgang Ostwald. Mister Ostwald¹ described colloidal particles in his famous book “Die Welt der vernachlässigten Dimensionen.” Also, textiles are not simple conventional. Many textiles and fiber materials exhibit high performance or advanced functional properties finding applications in demanding environments.^2–6 Examples are automotive textiles, fiber bases filters, flame-retardant clothes, high strength ropes, and many more.^7–11 For first conclusion, if nanomaterials are combined with textiles, none of both materials is inferior against the other. It is more like that, two materials with high potential are combined to gain finally a new product with innovative and advantageous properties.

After this short introductive statement, it should be defined what are really nanomaterials and what are textiles. According to the Oxford dictionary, a textile is defined as “A type of cloth or woven fabric.”¹² More generally a textile could be defined as a fiber based two-dimensional object. This two-dimensional object can be for example, a woven or knitted fabric but also a non-woven fiber felt. However, beyond this traditional two-dimensional approach also three-dimensional objects are realized by knitting or weaving of fiber materials and used for industrial applications.^13–15

Different definitions are given to specify, what a nanomaterial is. Following a broad and simple approach, a nanomaterial is a material with at least one length scale of nanometer size.¹⁶ However, often materials with a size up to 100 nm are named as nanomaterials. Of course, such materials could be also named as sub-micrometer materials.¹⁷ Historically the time period from 1995 to 2010 can be identified as boom era for development and new applications for nanomaterials.^18–20 During this optimistic era, the term “nano” was also used as marketing tool to promote products. In consequence, also quality labels for nanotechnology containing textiles were implemented.²¹ Unfortunately, after that optimistic period the public view on nanomaterials changed especially in Europe, so in public discussion more the possible health risks of nanomaterials are discussed instead being fascinated by excellent material properties.^22,23 For this reason, nowadays many products containing nanomaterials are not specified as nano containing product. Impressive examples for this change are cosmetic products with antimicrobial effects, which were some years ago promoted as nanosilver containing. Today, products are offered with the statement “containing microsilver.”²⁴

Next it should be discussed, how in principle a nanomaterial can be combined with a textile (Figure 1). In a first simple approach, a nanomaterial with new properties is deposited onto a surface of a textile transferring the nanomaterial properties to the textile substrate. Examples for this approach are the deposition of silver nanoparticles for realization of antibacterial textile fabrics or the deposition of carbon nanotubes to realize textile materials with electric conductivity.^25–27 The deposition on the textile surface is only one method to make the contact of nanomaterials to textiles. The nanomaterial can be also embedded inside the textile fiber during the spinning process.²⁸ Also, nanomaterials can be embedded in a coating on the textile surface or they can be even the coating agent itself leading to a three-dimensional network deposited on the textile surface.^29,30 This approach is related to the sol-gel technology and the application of nanosols on textiles.^31–34 Finally, a fiber can be built up by a nanomaterial itself. Examples for this are fibers spun from carbon nanotubes (CNT) or graphene, which are also set into the category of new carbon based fibers.^11,35,36 Even fibers with nanometer scaled diameters can be produced by electrospinning procedures, starting from fiber diameters around 10 nm up to diameters of several 100 nm.^37–40 The different variations are schematically presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Schematic view on the combination variations of nanomaterials (here nanoparticles) with textile fiber materials: (a) deposited particles, (b) particles in a coating, (c) coating forming particles, and (d) particles embedded in a fiber.

In the relation of the three terms nanomaterial, textile and functional property it should be distinguished if the nanomaterial is the carrier of the functional property or if the application of the nanomaterial leads to the implementation of nanostructures leading to new and final properties. An example for the first case is the nanosilver particle, which is itself antimicrobial.^25,26,41 The second case is demonstrated, for example, by applied silica particles leading to higher roughness on the textile surface, which are responsible for self-cleaning properties.^42,43 Also, improved functional properties by deposited nanostructured films fit in this second case. If the nanomaterials are the carrier for the functional property, it has to be distinguished, whether this property is caused or is at least influenced by the nanosize of the material.⁴⁴ A schematic overview on different relations of nanomaterials and functional properties is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

Schematic overview on the relation of nanomaterials and functional properties.

To support the reader a structured overview for nanomaterials and textiles, the following presentation is separated in two main sections. The first section is related to materials and how they are combined with textiles and fibers. The second section is related on functional properties and fields of applications.

Nanomaterials and combinations on textiles

This chapter supports an overview on different types of nanomaterials and how they are combined with textile and fiber materials. For each category of nanomaterial following a sub-section is supported. Hints on possible fields of application are given but mainly the fields of application are presented in following Section 4.

Nanoparticles

The nanoparticles are the classical and typical nanomaterial. Historically, before the naming as nanoparticles became popular, nanoparticles are often named as colloidal materials or solutions.¹ Even today the term “colloidal” is used to describe special products for advantageous applications as for example, colloidal silver or colloidal gold.^45–50 Few decades ago also the terms “cluster,” “metal cluster” or “nano cluster” were more often in used.^51–54

Nanoparticles stabilized in solution can be applied on textiles and fibers by simple dipping of the textiles into this solution.^55,56 Alternatively, it is also possible to create nanoparticles directly on textile surfaces or in pores of fiber materials by reaction of ionic or molecular precursor compounds. A very prominent example for application of nanoparticles on textiles is the application of silver nanoparticles aiming for antimicrobial properties. Such silver nanoparticles can be easily produced in aqueous solution by reduction of silver nitrate AgNO₃ in presence of a stabilizer limiting the growth of formed silver particles to keep nanometer size.^25,57,58 By dip-coating these nanosilver particles can be deposited on a textile surface. A following drying process removes the adjacent solvent. Alternatively, the textile substrate can be impregnated with silver nitrate and the reduction leading to the in situ formation of silver nanoparticles is done on the textile itself.^59,60 This in situ formation has the advantage that the silver ions (originally from the silver nitrate) can penetrate deeper in the pores of the textile fibers and the finally gained silver nanoparticles are placed more in the interior of the fiber. Finally, a better protection of the nanoparticles against abrasion or other external influences is supported.

An advantageous technique to prepare nanoparticular materials is the microwave technology which can be also used in combination with solvothermal processes.^61–65 By this microwave synthesis, silver nanoparticles can be prepared with short process duration and used for application on textiles by dip-coating.^66–68 Alternatively, this technique can support the formation of silver particles or titania particles in situ on textile substrates.^69,70

Sol-gel technology

Excellent overviews on the complete field of sol-gel technology are given by Brinker and Scherer⁷¹ and Hench and West.⁷² For application of sol-gel coatings on textiles one first starting point is given by the German patent of Böttcher et al.⁷³ Around one decade later, the book Nanosols&Textiles supported a comprehensive overview on the possibilities of sol-gel technology for functionalization of textiles.³³

The main part of the sol-gel process is the liquid sol which can be described as liquid solution of meta-stable nanoparticles up to a size of 80 nm. This solution can be used as coating agent to apply the particles on a textile substrate, for example, by dip-coating, padding processes or spraying. A following thermal treatment leads to drying and fixation of the sol. By drying in a first step the solvent is removed. By fixation the deposited particles are grown together forming a three-dimensional network of inorganic particles leading to the final sol-gel coating. In some cases, this is also named as nanosol coating, due to the nanoscale of the particles in the liquid coating agent. Such nanosols can be easily produced by hydrolysis and condensation of metalorganic compounds like tetraethoxysilane TEOS (compare Figure 3).⁷⁴

Figure 3.

Schematically description of the sol-gel process with the example of a silica based nanosol prepared by reaction of the precursor tetraethoxysilane TEOS.

In a first step the alkoxy group is hydrolyzed under acidic or alkaline conditions. Second, the hydrolyzed components condensate and growth up to meta-stable particles which are part of the nanosol. These particles form the silica coating after coating process and thermal treatment on the textile substrate. The resulting metal oxide coating can be self-functional and this function is transferred to the coated textile. Appropriate examples for such self-functional sol-gel coatings are photoactive titania coatings or silica coatings improving the abrasion stability of a textile fabric.³³ However, in most cases the inorganic nanosol is modified to implement functional properties. In a simple manner for this modification a categorization can be done into chemical, physical, or biological modification.^31,75

The physical modification can be described as embedding or encapsulation of a functional component into the sol-gel matrix. In such a way, dye molecules, carbon nanotubes or antimicrobial silver particles can be embedded into sol-gel coatings.^76–78 The embedded component is not chemically bonded, so it can be also used to implement controlled release applications. A good example in this field is the release of fragrances from sol-gel coatings to realize textiles with an aroma therapeutic approach.⁷⁹

In chemical modification of sol-gel coatings, functional components are chemically bonded to the sol-gel matrix. This modification can be for example, done by co-hydrolysis and condensation of various organosilanes.^31,75 The biological modification of a sol-gel coating is related to a combination of the sol-gel matrix to a biological system, as for example, biopolymers, enzymes, proteins or even complete cells.^80,81 For such bio-modified sol-gel materials, the term biocers was implemented.^82,83

Spin doping

Man-made fibers are produced by different spinning processes as melt spinning, wet spinning or dry spinning.^84–86 In case of melt spinning, the fibers are gained from the polymer melt. If it is not possible to a gain a stable polymer melt, also spinning from polymer solution is performed – wet spinning or dry spinning processes. A prominent example in this field is the production of regenerated cellulosic fibers by using the Lyocell process.^87,88 The modification of the fibers in the spinning process is possible by adding components to the spinning mass (either polymer melt or polymer solution). This type of modification is also named as spin-doping. The probable most often used spin-doping is the addition of titanium dioxide pigment particles to polyester and nylon fibers to realize opaque effects.⁸⁹ The embedding of higher content of titanium dioxide TiO₂ leads to textile materials with protective properties against UV light. A prominent product example in this field is the Tencelsun fiber.^90–92

By incorporation of components like barium sulfate BaSO₄, barium titanate BaTiO₃ or bismuth oxide Bi₂O₃ also a certain protection against X-ray and cosmic radiation can be implemented^93–97

Lanthanum hexaboride LaB₆ and cesium tungstate Cs₂WO₄ are absorbing components for near infrared light. Nanopigments of those substances can be embedded into PET fibers with the aim to realize IR-marked sewing and embroidery yarns useable for safety marking applications.⁹⁸

Finally, some advantages and disadvantages of spin-doping should be summarized. Most advantageous is probably that the nanopigments are embedded in the fiber materials – resulting to high stability against washing and rubbing processes. Disadvantageous is that the functionalization by spin-doping stands at the beginning of the complete production process for a textile product. This issue is similar for colored fibers produces by spin-dyeing processes. Here, a limitation of flexibility to react on the demands of the market is mentioned as disadvantageous.⁹⁹ For this, spin-doping with nanomaterials has also not the flexibility of alternative methods which are modifying already produced fabrics or even functionalize a readymade piece of clothing.

Effect pigments

Effect pigments are commercially available products mainly used to realize special optical effects, those are high reflectivity, special metallic or shining appearance. Usually it is distinguished between metal effect pigments and pearlescent effect pigments.^100–104 The main structural feature for all effect pigments is their plain geometry, which is responsible for the high reflectivity – best described as a kind of mirroring effect. The diameter of plain effect pigments can be up to 50 μm or more, while the thickness of the effect pigment is several orders of magnitude smaller (<100 nm). For this, by view on the small thickness of effect pigments, it is justified to name them as a kind of nanomaterial.¹⁰⁵ An example for a metal effect pigment is shown in Figure 4. Here, an aluminum based effect pigment with so-called “silver-dollar shape” is presented, which is used to realize high reflective coatings. Metal effect pigments can be made from pure metals. However, mainly they are made from alloys as for example, gold bronze pigments. Important is also the surface treatment of effect pigments or their coating, which is often necessary to stabilize the pigment and avoid corrosion.^106–109

Figure 4.

SEM images presenting different types of effect pigments. Metal effect pigment from aluminum with high reflectivity for visible and infrared light (a) and effect pigment from glass with silver layer on top (b).

From structural point of view, pearlescent pigments are totally different compared to metal effect pigments. Pearlescent pigments are made from metal oxides and semi-metal oxides. They contain a plate like core on which one or more metal oxide coatings are deposited. The color effect of pearlescent pigments is caused by interference effects of light in interaction with these coatings.^100,103,110 These interference effects can be used for adjustment of protective properties against UV- and IR-radiation of pigment containing coating on textile substrates.¹¹¹ Due to the thickness of these coatings, pearlescent effect pigments can be also named as nanomaterials.

Figure 4 shows the microscopic image of a product which is an effect pigment but neither a metal effect pigment nor a pearlescent pigment. This pigment can be described as micro glass plate containing a nanosilver coating. This is shown in the microscopic image for the edge of the pigment, there this silver layer is damaged.

The application of effect pigments on textile fabrics can be used to implement different functional properties.¹⁰⁵ Traditional applications are related to special color effects as for example, a metal like appearance. However, also antimicrobial properties, antistatic or even electric conductive properties can be implemented by effect pigment on textiles.¹¹² Interesting are also applications in the field of electrosmog shielding, UV protection, or reflection of infrared light.¹¹²

By view on all these reported applications, it should be kept in mind that effect pigments have themselves only a low adhesion to textile fibers. For this, they have to be applied together with a binder as coating application or as print. Such a coating application may change the mechanical properties of the treated textile substrate and by this even the textile character of the final product can be diminished. Also, the amount of embedded effect pigment used in a coating is limited, because of the mechanical stability of the coating decreasing with increasing loading ratio. Depending on the type of binder and effect pigment, the content of an effect pigment in such a textile coating should not exceed a ratio of 10–20 wt%.

Surface structuring

The implementation of a microscaled or nanoscaled structure can lead to new or advanced functional properties of fiber materials. A prominent example in this field is given by the lotus effect, where hydrophobic and self-cleaning properties of a surface are implemented by a surface structuring using a combination of micro and nano structures.^113–115 Textile materials usually exhibit by themselves already a microstructure from fiber and yarn, so often only an additional nanostructure has to be added to realize self-cleaning properties and high contact angle values against water.¹¹⁶ The nanostructures can be gained by deposition of inorganic particles, inorganic fibrous structures or organic polymeric structures.^117,118 Alternatively to the deposition of nanostructured materials, also a surface structuring can be realized by etching from polymer fiber surface, for example, by treatment with laser or plasma.^119–121

Electrospinning

Electrospinning is the method for producing fiber based nanomaterials which is most often reported in scientific literature during the last decades.^122–125

Prominent books describe the use of electrospinning and the properties of gained fiber materials.^126,127 Roughly spoken by using an electric field fiber are forced out from a polymer solution and are deposited on a substrate, which is by this modified by the electrospun fibers.^126–128 Fibers realized by electrospinning contain diameters below those from microfibers. However, diameters of electrospun fibers are usually in the range of 50–200 nm and by this significantly larger than 1 nm. Beside the broad scientific awareness in the field of electrospinning, nowadays electrospinning procedures are implemented in continuous production processes and semi-industrial scale.¹²⁹ A simple electrospun fiber material has related to the fiber volume a large specific surface area, so excellent filtration properties can be expected from those materials.¹³⁰ Further, electrospun fibers can be modified by spin-doping with nanoparticles, as for example, metallic nanoparticles to implement additional antimicrobial properties in filter materials.¹³¹ The introduction of gold nanoparticles can for example, lead to red colored electrospun fiber materials.¹³² By implementation of titanium dioxide TiO₂ nanoparticles, photocatalytic, and self-cleaning fibers can be deposited.^133,134 The combination of electrospun nanofibers with chitosan and graphene oxide can be use for the preparation of membranes for removal of dye stuffs from waste water.^135,136 An interesting field is also the combination with biopolymers like for example, gelatine, keratin or chitosan.^137–140 By this, fully or partly biopolymer-based nanofibers can be realized which may offer the change for realization of new bio-compatible materials for example, used in the field of tissue engineering.^137,141,142

Functional properties and related applications

This section supports an overview on often mentioned functional properties realized by application of nanomaterials onto textiles. To enable a better understanding of different functional properties it is helpful to distinguish mainly three categories where the functional properties can be sorted in. These categories can be simply named as biological, optical and surface active (compare Figure 5). The biological category stands for any functional property causing a demanded effect on a living organism. The main prominent application in this field is the antimicrobial application, which works against microorganism and viruses.^143–146 Also, effects against larger organism like insects or spiders could be put into this category leading to textile materials supporting a protective effect against those species.^147,148 In contrast to those “anti-functions,” the biological function can be also “pro,” for example, as promoting the growth of useful cells as kind of a biocompatible property.^149,150 The optical category stands for any functional property which is related to the interaction with light or general with radiation. Main applications are related to protection against a certain type of radiation – mostly UV protection.^151–153 However, also camouflage applications or applications based on light emission are relevant.^154,155 Photoactive materials support a certain activity in case of illumination with light, these can be self-cleaning processes, oxidative processes or antibacterial properties.^69,156–159 The category “surface active” summarize functionalization influencing the wettability of textile materials leading for example, to water repellent materials.¹⁶⁰

Figure 5.

The three categories of functional properties.

Antimicrobial

Antimicrobial functional textiles can be realized by combination of fiber materials with nanoparticles containing the elements silver, copper or zinc.^144,161,162 For silver, these are almost elementary silver particles, which release silver ions Ag⁺ from their surface as antimicrobial active component.^55,163,164 Also, applications with silver chloride AgCl particles or silver ions embedded in inorganic matrices are possible.^58,165,166 Silver nanoparticles exhibit high antimicrobial effectivity which is often advantageous compared to the performance of other antimicrobial agents. However, for practical applications, the use of silver nanoparticles is limited due to their strong yellow/brown coloration.^167–169 This type of coloration is inherent for spherical metallic silver nanoparticles and explained by surface plasmon effects.^170–172 In contrast, for anisotropic silver nanoparticles a range of different colorations can be determined depending on size and shape of the nanoparticles.¹⁷³

Antimicrobial applications based on copper or zinc, are mostly related to the oxidic components of those metals like the copper oxides CuO and Cu₂O or zinc oxide ZnO.^56,174,175 Particles from zinc oxide exhibit a white coloration and absorptive properties for UV light, so their use as UV absorber is also possible.¹⁷⁶

Additional, metal containing particles also organic agents can be used as antimicrobial additives.^177,178 Such antimicrobial agents as quaternary ammonium compounds are from their structure not nanomaterials but they can be part of a nanomaterial based coating and controlled release system deposited on textile surfaces. A controlled release of an active substance can be an effective and fast application for antimicrobial activity.^177,179,180

UV protection

UV protection in general means that a person or a material is protected against the exposure with harmful UV light.^181,182 Usually the protection against UV light from a spectral range from 280 to 400 nm is demanded, because this is the spectral intensity from sun light.¹⁸³ A material offering UV protective properties is able to decrease the transmission for UV light drastically. Mostly this is reached by absorption of UV light and such properties can be implemented by application of UV absorbers. A UV absorber is a colorless substance absorbing electromagnetic radiation below 400 nm.^183,184 Further, the UV absorber has to be stable under exposure of UV light.

Prominent inorganic UV absorbers are based on titanium dioxide TiO₂ and zinc oxide ZnO which are often applied as nanoparticles during coating application on textiles or as spin-doping agents.²⁹ TiO₂ particles from nanosols can be as well used as coating forming agent themselves. Alternatively used are organic UV absorbers. They can be embedded and permanently fixed inside an inorganic nanosol coating.^185–187

Photoactive

Photoactive textiles summarizing types of textiles exhibiting a response to light. This can be luminescent textiles – which are discussed in the following sub-section.¹⁸⁸ However, photoactive textiles are mainly related to photocatalytic or photooxidative properties.¹⁸⁹ By this, photooxidative effects, antimicrobial properties and self-cleaning effects can be implemented on textile surfaces.^157,190,191 Also, cleaning of waste water form dye stuffs and the cleaning of air are useful applications.^192–194

The probable most often described photoactive material on textiles is titanium dioxide TiO₂ in its crystal modification anatase. Many studies report on the modification of anatase to improve it photoactivity and implement also an activity under illumination with visible light.^190,195 For this, doping of TiO₂ particles with different chemical elements like nitrogen, iron or copper are reported.^{190,196–198} Other approaches use the combination with metal oxides from manganese MnO₂ or silica SiO₂.^157,199,200

Luminescent materials

Luminescent materials emit light in case of an external stimulation. This external stimulation can be exposure to UV-light or blue visible light in case of fluorescence and phosphorescence.^201–204 Also, temperature, mechanical or electrical influences can stimulate a luminescent effect.^205,206 Particles from zinc sulfide ZnS or doped strontium aluminates SrAl₂O₄ can be set as phosphorescence materials.^201,207 Applications can be implemented as printing additives or inks on textile surfaces or realized in composite nanofibers.^207–209 Examples for a commercial product in this field are presented in Figure 6. Here, in case of illumination with UV-light a lasting emission of blue/green light up to 30 min can be observed.²¹⁰

Figure 6.

Product example for a commercially available phosphorescent home textile. Magnified photography taken by a light microscope with UV light illumination (a) and photographic image under illumination with UV-light (b).

Repellent materials

Repellent materials are able to repel different types of liquids like water, alcohol, organic solvents, or oil.²¹¹ This is related to applications as repellency of rain, soil repellency as for example, coffee or red wine or separation of oil from water.^212,213 Often used terms are hydrophobic and oleophobic properties. Hydrophobic and amphiphilic particles or hydrophobically modified coating agents can transfer water repellent properties on textiles.^214,215 By this, also the repellency against water based stains as coffee, tea or red wine is implemented. A suitable method is the application of alkyl-modified sol-gel systems.^216–218 An interesting and commercially successful approach in this field uses hydrophobic dendrimers.^219–222 Improved repellent effects may be reached if the applied hydrophobic agent is combined with an agent or a method introducing micro- and nanostructuring leading to additional self-cleaning effects.^223,224

Filtration

Filter materials can be either improved or created by application of nanomaterials on textiles.^225–228 Figure 7 presents microscopic images of a commercial non-woven filter material. The filtration properties are improved by deposition of electrospun nanofibers.²²⁹ Additionally to simple improvement of filtration properties by influencing the surface area or modification of pore size, also the addition of further functional properties can improve filter materials.^230,231 Functional properties in this field can be antimicrobial, soil-repellent or photooxidative^232–236

Figure 7.

SEM images in different magnifications of a commercial non-woven filter material from acrylic fibers exhibiting electrospun fibers on the surface. Low magnification (a) and high magnification (b).

An antimicrobial filter will be less effected by contamination with germs and microbes. The realization is possible by use of silver particles.^237,238 A soil-repellent filter can be easier to clean and by this an increased life-time or reusability is possible.²³⁹ Filters with photooxidative properties may find applications in waste water treatment due to enhanced photooxidative decomposition of agents or dye stuffs in waste water.²⁴⁰

Conclusions and future perspectives

Nanomaterials and textiles are fascinating materials influencing our life by presence in consumer products and technical materials. Here is a broad range of nanomaterials which can be implemented to textiles using very different methods and approaches. By this, functional textile materials with new and advantageous properties can be realized, as for example, antimicrobial, luminescent or photoactive materials. With view on the recent years with the COVIP-19 pandemic situation, a special future perspective might be given and state that especially textile based and nano-modified filter materials can be a strong issue for future development and coming investigations. However, it should be stated that the application of nanomaterials is not automatically the best method to reach a new functional property for the demanded textile application. Also, conventional textile finishing procedures or new methods like plasma polymerization or functionalization from supercritical carbon dioxide are powerful tools and competing with nanomaterial application for functionalization of textiles. This competition of different processes is either driven by the performance of the realized functional materials but also by economic concerns, legal restrictions and health concerns.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

All product and company names mentioned in this article may be trademarks of their respected owners, even without labeling.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Boris Mahltig

References

Ostwald

Die Welt der vernachlässigten Dimensionen – Eine Einführung in die Kolloidchemie. Hamburg: SEVERUS Verlag, 2015.

Mahltig

High-performance fibres–a review of properties and IR-spectra. Tekstilec 2021; 64(2): 96–118.

Mahltig

Grethe

High-performance and functional fiber materials—a review of properties, scanning electron microscopy SEM and electron dispersive spectroscopy EDS. Textile 2022; 2(2): 209–251.

Joshi

Bhattacharyya

Nanotechnology–a new route to high-performance functional textiles. Text Prog 2011; 43(3): 155–233.

Shah

Pirzada

Price

, et al. Applications of nanotechnology in smart textile industry: a critical review. J Adv Res 2022; 38: 55–75.

Shaheen

TI.

Nanotechnology for modern textiles: highlights on smart applications. J Text Inst 2022; 113(10): 2274–2284.

Athalye

Automotive textiles. Int J Text Eng Process 2015; 1(1): 42–52.

Jung

Kim

Advanced design of fiber-based particulate filters: materials, morphology, and construction of fibrous assembly. Polymers 2020; 12(8): 1714.

Chen

Lai

, et al. Superhydrophobic and phosphorus-nitrogen flame-retardant cotton fabric. Prog Org Coat 2021; 159: 106446.

10.

Bain

Davies

Bles

, et al. Influence of bedding-in on the tensile performance of HMPE fiber ropes. Ocean Eng 2020; 203: 107144.

11.

Mahltig

Kyosev

Inorganic and composite fibers: production, properties, and applications. Duxford: Woodhead Publishing, 2018.

12.

Pearsall

Hanks

Soanes

Stevenson

. Oxford dictionary of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

13.

Patnaik

Fibres to smart textiles. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2019.

14.

Tripathi

Behera

BK.

3D woven honeycomb composites. J Mater Sci 2021; 56(28): 15609–15652.

15.

Grosch

Ficker

Using 3D weaving for additive manufacturing of ceramic preforms. Melliand International 2022; 27(2): 237–240.

16.

Kreyling

Semmler-Behnke

Chaudhry

A complementary definition of nanomaterial. Nano Today 2010; 5(3): 165–168.

17.

Bognitzki

Becker

Graeser

, et al. Preparation of sub-micrometer copper fibers via electrospinning. Adv Mater 2006; 18(18): 2384–2386.

18.

Wakefield

Nanomaterials: costs and opportunities. Nano Today 2008; 3(3–4): 48.

19.

Liu

Nanomaterials for fresh-keeping and sterilization in food preservation. Recent Pat Food Nutr Agric 2009; 1(2): 149–154.

20.

Zhang

Webster

TJ.

Nanotechnology and nanomaterials: promises for improved tissue regeneration. Nano Today 2009; 4(1): 66–80.

21.

Hohensteiner Institute. press release on web page from 22.April.2005, Online: https://idw-online.de/de/news109371 (accessed 23.03.2023).

22.

Brayner

Fiévet

Coradin

Nanomaterials: A danger or a promise? London: Springer-Verlag, 2013.

23.

Kabir

Kumar

Kim

, et al. Environmental impacts of nanomaterials. J Environ Manag 2018; 225: 261–271.

24.

SOS MicroSilber-Crème. Product web page for nanosilver free product, online, https://www.sos.de/gesundheitsthema/was-ist-der-unterschied-zwischen-microsilber-und-nanosilber (2024, accessed 1 February 2024).

25.

Mahltig

Reibold

Gutmann

, et al. Preparation of silver nanoparticles suitable for textile finishing processes to produce textiles with strong antibacterial properties against different bacteria types. Z Naturforsch B 2011; 66(9): 905–916.

26.

Ahmed

Ogulata

RT.

A review on silver nanoparticles-green synthesis, antimicrobial action and application in textiles. J Nat Fibers 2022; 19(14): 8463–8484.

27.

Shahidi

Moazzenchi

Carbon nanotube and its applications in textile industry–a review. J Text Inst 2018; 109(12): 1653–1666.

28.

Liu

Zhang

, et al. Electrospinning preparation and characterization of a new kind of composite nanomaterials: one-dimensional composite nanofibers doped with TiO₂ nanoparticles and Ru (II) complex. Mater Res Bull 2009; 44(11): 2081–2086.

29.

Tsuzuki

Wang

Nanoparticle coatings for UV protective textiles. Res J Text Apparel 2010; 14(2): 9–20.

30.

Dastjerdi

Montazer

Shahsavan

A new method to stabilize nanoparticles on textile surfaces. Colloids Surf 2009; 345(1-3): 202–210.

31.

Mahltig

Böttcher

Refining of textiles by nanosol coating. Melliand International 2002; 83(6): 251–253.

32.

Mahltig

Haufe

Böttcher

Functionalisation of textiles by inorganic sol–gel coatings. J Mater Chem 2005; 15(41): 4385–4398.

33.

Mahltig

Textor

Nanosols and Textiles. Singapore: World Scientific, 2008.

34.

Yuan

Grethe

Mahltig

Sol-gel coatings with the fluorescence dye rhodamine B for optical modification of cotton. Commun Dev Assem Text Prod 2023; 4(1): 1–17.

35.

Islam

Afroj

Uddin

, et al. Graphene and CNT-based smart fiber-reinforced composites: a review. Adv Funct Mater 2022; 32(40): 2205723.

36.

Dariyal

Arya

Singh

, et al. A review on conducting carbon nanotube fibers spun via direct spinning technique. J Mater Sci 2021; 56(2): 1087–1115.

37.

Zussman

Theron

Yarin

AL.

Formation of nanofiber crossbars in electrospinning. Appl Phys Lett 2003; 82(6): 973–975.

38.

Chen

Liu

Zhou

, et al. Electrospinning fabrication of high strength and toughness polyimide nanofiber membranes containing multiwalled carbon nanotubes. J Phys Chem B 2009; 113(29): 9741–9748.

39.

Kwon

, et al. Formation of sub-100-nm suspended nanowires with various materials using thermally adjusted electrospun nanofibers as templates. Microsyst Nanoeng 2023; 9: 15.

40.

Ouerghemmi

Degoutin

Maton

, et al. Core-sheath electrospun nanofibers based on chitosan and cyclodextrin polymer for the prolonged release of triclosan. Polymers 2022; 14(10): 1955.

41.

Kodaloğlu

Oğuz

NS.

Investigation of radiation shielding, antibacterial and some properties of nanosilver applied and coated woven fabrics. Ind Text 2023; 74(02): 169–174.

42.

Krishna

Vinjanampati

Purkayastha

DD.

Metal oxide thin films and nanostructures for self-cleaning applications: current status and future prospects. Eur Phys J Appl Phys 2013; 62(3): 30001.

43.

Anjum

Sun

Ali

, et al. Fabrication of coral-reef structured nano silica for self-cleaning and super-hydrophobic textile applications. Chem Eng J 2020; 401: 125859.

44.

Roduner

Size matters: why nanomaterials are different. Chem Soc Rev 2006; 35(7): 583–592.

45.

Pies

Immun mit kolloidalem Silber. Kirchzarten: VAK Verlags GmbH, 2016.

46.

Pies

Reinelt

Kolloidales Silber. Kirchzarten: VAK Verlags GmbH, 2016.

47.

Domínguez

Algaba

Canturri

, et al. Antibacterial activity of colloidal silver against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Antibiotics 2020; 9(1): 11–13.

48.

Kuhn

Handbuch der kolloidalen Metalle – Praxisleitfaden zur Herstellung von Kolloiden in Flüssigkeiten oder als Gel. Rottenburg: Kopp Verlag, 2018.

49.

Franneck

Kolloidales Silber. Rottenburg: Kopp Verlag, 2023.

50.

Hamann

Heilen mit Gold – Kolloidales Gold und weitere Goldarzneien. Rottenburg: Kopp Verlag, 2020.

51.

Eckstein

Kreibig

Light induced aggregation of metal clusters. Zeitschrift für Physik D 1993; 26(1): 239–241.

52.

Schmid

Chi

LF.

Metal clusters and colloids. Adv Mater 1998; 10(7): 515–526.

53.

Salz

Mahltig

Baalmann

, et al. Metal clusters in plasma polymer matrices. Part III. Optical properties and redox behaviour of Cu clusters. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2000; 2(13): 3105–3110.

54.

Kreibig

Vollmer

Optical properties of metal clusters. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1995.

55.

Radetić

Functionalization of textile materials with silver nanoparticles. J Mater Sci 2013; 48(1): 95–107.

56.

Pintarić

Škoc

Bilić

, et al. Synthesis, modification and characterization of antimicrobial textile surface containing ZnO nanoparticles. Polymers 2020; 12(6): 1210.

57.

Mahltig

Tatlises

Fahmi

, et al. Dendrimer stabilized silver particles for the antimicrobial finishing of textiles. J Text Inst 2013; 104(10): 1042–1048.

58.

Simončič

Klemenčič

Preparation and performance of silver as an antimicrobial agent for textiles: A review. Textile Res. J 2016; 86(2): 210–223.

59.

Assylbekova

Alotaibi

Yegemberdiyeva

, et al. Sunlight induced synthesis of silver nanoparticles on cellulose for the preparation of antimicrobial textiles. J Photochem Photobiol 2022; 11: 100134.

60.

Yuan

Bao

, et al. in situ coloring and antibacterial finishing of silk fabrics through Fenton-induced deposition of caffeic acid and silver nanoparticles. Fibers Polym 2023; 24(4): 1265–1274.

61.

Wei

Liivat

, et al. Microwave-solvothermal synthesis of Fe₃O₄ magnetic nanoparticles. Mater Lett 2013; 107: 23–26.

62.

Wojnarowicz

Chudoba

Koltsov

, et al. Size control mechanism of ZnO nanoparticles obtained in microwave solvothermal synthesis. Nanotechnol 2018; 29(6): 065601.

63.

Qiao

Saray

Wang

, et al. Scalable synthesis of high entropy alloy nanoparticles by microwave heating. ACS Nano 2021; 15(9): 14928–14937.

64.

Ouaras

Lombardi

Hassouni

Nanoparticles synthesis in microwave plasmas: peculiarities and comprehensive insight. Sci Rep 2024; 14(1): 4653.

65.

Mahltig

Greiler

Haase

Microwave assisted conversion of an amino acid into a fluorescent solution. Acta Chim Slov 2018; 65(4): 865–874.

66.

Mahltig

Gutmann

Reibold

, et al. Synthesis of Ag and Ag/SiO₂ sols by solvothermal method and their bactericidal activity. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 2009; 51(2): 204–214.

67.

Barani

Mahltig

Using microwave irradiation to catalyze the in-situ manufacturing of silver nanoparticles on cotton fabric for antibacterial and UV-protective application. Cellulose 2020; 27(15): 9105–9121.

68.

Barani

Mahltig

Microwave-assisted synthesis of silver nanoparticles: effect of reaction temperature and precursor concentration on fluorescent property. J Cluster Sci 2022; 33(1): 101–111.

69.

Mahltig

Miao

Microwave-assisted preparation of photoactive TiO₂ on textile substrates. J Coat Technol Res 2017; 14(3): 721–733.

70.

Calhan

Mahltig

Microwave-assisted process for silver/silica sol application onto cotton fabrics. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 2019; 92(3): 607–617.

71.

Brinker

Scherer

GW.

Sol-gel science – the Physics and chemistry of sol-gel processing. Boston, MA: Academic Press Inc, 1990.

72.

Hench

West

JK.

The sol-gel process. Chem Rev 1990; 90(1): 33–72.

73.

Böttcher

Kallies

Textor

, et al. Beschichtungsmittel, insbesondere für textile und polymere Materialien, German Patent DE19756906A1, 1997.

74.

Wright

Sommerdijk

NA.

Sol-gel materials: Chemistry and applications. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000.

75.

Mahltig

Sol-gel technique for preparation of functional coatings. Vakuum Forsch Prax 2004; 3(3): 129–132.

76.

Mahltig

Textor

Combination of silica sol and dyes on textiles. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 2006; 39(2): 111–118.

77.

Olivares-Torres

Alvarado-Rivera

Guzmán-Zamudio

, et al. Adjustable emission of carbon dots and rhodamine B embedded in organic-inorganic hybrid gels for solid-state light devices. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 2023; 106(1): 186–198.

78.

Guglielmi

From past research experiences looking to the future of sol–gel. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 2020; 95(3): 494–502.

79.

Haufe

Muschter

Siegert

, et al. Bioactive textiles by sol–gel immobilised natural active agents. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 2008; 45(1): 97–101.

80.

Nassif

Roux

Coradin

, et al. A sol–gel matrix to preserve the viability of encapsulated bacteria. J Mater Chem 2003; 13(2): 203–208.

81.

Pierre

AC.

The sol-gel encapsulation of enzymes. Biocatal Biotransformation 2004; 22(3): 145–170.

82.

Böttcher

Soltmann

Mertig

, et al. Biocers: ceramics with incorporated microorganisms for biocatalytic, biosorptive and functional materials development. J Mater Chem 2004; 14(14): 2176–2188.

83.

Fiedler

Hager

Franke

, et al. Algae biocers: astaxanthin formation in sol–gel immobilised living microalgae. J Mater Chem 2007; 17(3): 261–266.

84.

Weise

Völkel

Köppe

, et al. Melt-and wet-spinning of graphene-polymer nano-composite fibres for multifunctional textile applications. Mater Today Proc 2017; 4: S135–145.

85.

Tian

Liu

, et al. Dry spinning approach to continuous graphene fibers with high toughness. Nanoscale 2017; 9(34): 12335–12342.

86.

Notin

Viton

Lucas

, et al. Pseudo-dry-spinning of chitosan. Acta Biomater 2006; 2(3): 297–311.

87.

Jiang

Bai

Chen

, et al. A review on raw materials, commercial production and properties of lyocell fiber. J Bioresour Bioprod 2020; 5(1): 16–25.

88.

Edgar

Zhang

Antibacterial modification of lyocell fiber: a review. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 250: 116932.

89.

Windler

Lorenz

von Goetz

, et al. Release of titanium dioxide from textiles during washing. Environ Sci Technol 2012; 46(15): 8181–8188.

90.

Yip

Chan

WY.

Textile fibers and fabrics. In: J

Yip

(ed.) Latest material and technological developments for activewear. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing, 2020, pp.47–72.

91.

Mahltig

Fibers for radiation protection. In: J

Kumar

(eds) Handbook of fibrous materials. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, 2020, pp.889–926.

92.

Rahman

Dafader

Rahman

, et al. Smart medical clothing for disabled and aged people. In: MIH

Mondal

(ed.) Smart textiles from natural resources. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing, 2024, pp.587–639.

93.

Günther

Giebing

Askani

, et al. Cellulose/inorganic-composite fibers for producing textile fabrics of high X-ray absorption properties. Mater Chem Phys 2015; 167: 125–135.

94.

Mahltig

Günther

Askani

, et al. X-ray-protective organic/inorganic fiber–along the textile chain from fiber production to clothing application. J Text Inst 2017; 108(11): 1975–1984.

95.

Blachowicz

Ehrmann

Shielding of cosmic radiation by fibrous materials. Fibers 2021; 9(10): 1–15.

96.

Liu

Zhang

Wang

, et al. Flexible lightweight Bi₂O₃-rubber based materials for X-ray protection. Radiat Phys Chem 2024; 216: 111395.

97.

Mahltig

Günther

Giebing

, et al. Anorganische/organische Kompositfasern zur Abschirmung von Röntgenstrahlung. Chem Ing Tech 2014; 86(9): 1555–1556.

98.

Schäfer

Vinokur

Pich

, et al. IR-marked sewing and embroidery yarns for protection against forgery. Melliand International 2022; 27(2): 224–227.

99.

Tawiah

Asinyo

BK.

Advances in spun-dyeing of regenerated cellulose fibers. Int J Manag Inf Technol Eng 2016; 4(8): 65–80.

100.

Pfaff

Gabel

Kieser

, et al. Special effect pigments. Hannover: Vincentz Network GmbH, 2008.

101.

Wißling

Metalleffekt-Pigmente. Hannover: Vincentz Network GmbH, 2013.

102.

Pfaff

Inorganic pigments. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH, 2017.

103.

Maile

Pfaff

Reynders

Effect pigments—past, present and future. Prog Org Coat 2005; 54(3): 150–163.

104.

Pfaff

Bartelt

Maile

FJ.

Metal effect pigments. Phys Sci Rev 2021; 6(6): 179–197.

105.

Mahltig

Zhang

, et al. Effect pigments for textile coating: a review of the broad range of advantageous functionalization. J Coat Technol Res 2017; 14(1): 35–55.

106.

Karlsson

Palmqvist

AEC

Holmberg

Surface modification for aluminium pigment inhibition. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2006; 128: 121–134.

107.

Kalendová

Veselý

Kohl

, et al. Effect of surface treatment of pigment particles with polypyrrole and polyaniline phosphate on their corrosion inhibiting properties in organic coatings. Prog Org Coat 2014; 77(9): 1465–1483.

108.

Müller

Schubert

Corrosion inhibition of copper and brass pigments in aqueous alkaline media by copolymers. Prog Org Coat 1999; 37(3–4): 193–197.

109.

Kiehl

Greiwe

Encapsulated aluminium pigments. Prog Org Coat 1999; 37(3–4): 179–183.

110.

Greiler

Schwarz-Pfeiffer and Mahltig

Pearlescent effect pigments for coatings on textiles – part II: angle dependent coloration. World Journal of Textile Engineering and Technology 2021; 7(01): 112–121.

111.

Greiler

Mahltig

Pearlescent effect pigments for coatings on textiles – part I: protective materials against UV light and IR light. World J Text Eng Technol 2021; 7(6): 73–83.

112.

Topp

Haase

Degen

, et al. Coatings with metallic effect pigments for antimicrobial and conductive coating of textiles with electromagnetic shielding properties. J Coat Technol Res 2014; 11(6): 943–957.

113.

Ebert

Bhushan

Durable Lotus-effect surfaces with hierarchical structure using micro-and nanosized hydrophobic silica particles. J Colloid Interface Sci 2012; 368(1): 584–591.

114.

Bhushan

Jung

Koch

Micro-, nano-and hierarchical structures for superhydrophobicity, self-cleaning and low adhesion. Phil Trans R Soc A 2009; 367(1894): 1631–1672.

115.

Spaeth

Barthlott

Lotus-effect®: biomimetic super-hydrophobic surfaces and their application. Adv Sci Technol 2009; 60: 38–46.

116.

Joshi

Bhattacharyya

Agarwal

, et al. Nanostructured coatings for super hydrophobic textiles. Bull Mater Sci 2012; 35(6): 933–938.

117.

Ramaratnam

Iyer

Kinnan

, et al. Ultrahydrophobic textiles using nanoparticles: lotus approach. Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics 2008; 3(4): 1–14.

118.

Chen

Wan

, et al. A lotus effect-inspired flexible and breathable membrane with hierarchical electrospinning micro/nanofibers and ZnO nanowires. Mater Des 2019; 162: 246–248.

119.

Khan

Boltaev

Iqbal

, et al. Ultrafast fiber laser-induced fabrication of superhydrophobic and self-cleaning metal surfaces. Appl Surf Sci 2021; 542: 148560.

120.

Tyuftin

Kerry

JP.

Review of surface treatment methods for polyamide films for potential application as smart packaging materials: surface structure, antimicrobial and spectral properties. Food Packag Shelf Life 2020; 24: 100475.

121.

Macedo

MJP

Silva

Feitor

, et al. Surface modification of kapok fibers by cold plasma surface treatment. J Mater Res Technol 2020; 9(2): 2467–2476.

122.

Teo

Ramakrishna

A review on electrospinning design and nanofibre assemblies. Nanotechnol 2006; 17(14): R89–R106.

123.

Bhardwaj

Kundu

SC.

Electrospinning: a fascinating fiber fabrication technique. Biotechnol Adv 2010; 28(3): 325–347.

124.

Zhu

Cheng

, et al. Developments of advanced electrospinning techniques: a critical review. Adv Mater Technol 2021; 6(11): 2100410.

125.

Mpofu

Topuz

Stepula

, et al. Influence of the PAN:PEO ratio on the morphology of needleless electrospun nanofiber mats before and after carbonization. Fibers 2024; 12(11): 97.

126.

Ramakrishna

Fujihara

Teo

, et al. An Introduction to electrospinning and nanofibers. Singapore: World Scientific, 2005.

127.

Agarwal

Burgard

Greiner

, et al. Electrospinning – a practical guide to nanofibers. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH, 2016.

128.

Angammana

Jayaram

SH.

Fundamentals of electrospinning and processing technologies. Particulate Sci Technol 2016; 34(1): 72–82.

129.

Dong

Yan

, et al. Recent advances in needleless electrospinning of ultrathin fibers: from academia to industrial production. Macromol Mater Eng 2017; 302(7): 1700002.

130.

Kadam

Wang

Padhye

Electrospun nanofibre materials to filter air pollutants–a review. J Ind Text 2018; 47(8): 2253–2280.

131.

Rujitanaroj

Pimpha

Supaphol

Preparation, characterization, and antibacterial properties of electrospun polyacrylonitrile fibrous membranes containing silver nanoparticles. J Appl Polym Sci 2010; 116(4): 1967–1976.

132.

Rostami

Hadjizadeh

Mahshid

Colorimetric determination of dopamine using an electrospun nanofibrous membrane decorated with gold nanoparticles. J Mater Sci 2020; 55(18): 7969–7980.

133.

Lee

Javed

Zhang

, et al. Porous electrospun fibers embedding TiO₂ for adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of water pollutants. Environ Sci Technol 2018; 52(7): 4285–4293.

134.

Blachowicz

Ehrmann

Optical properties of electrospun nanofiber mats. Membranes 2023; 13(4): 441.

135.

Dissanayake

NSL

Pathirana

Wanasekara

, et al. Removal of methylene blue and congo red using a chitosan–graphene oxide-electrosprayed functionalized polymeric nanofiber membrane. Nanomaterials 2023; 13(8): 1350.

136.

Pathirana

Dissanayake

NSL

Wanasekara

, et al. Chitosan-graphene oxide dip-coated polyacrylonitrile-ethylenediamine electrospun nanofiber membrane for removal of the dye stuffs methylene blue and congo red. Nanomaterials 2023; 13(3): 498.

137.

Ehrmann

Non-toxic crosslinking of electrospun gelatin nanofibers for tissue engineering and biomedicine—a review. Polymers 2021; 13(12): 1–22.

138.

Sabantina

Wehlage

Klöcker

, et al. Stabilization of electrospun PAN/gelatin nanofiber mats for carbonization. J Nanomat 2018; 2018: 1–12.

139.

Goyal

Dotter

Diestelhorst

, et al. Extraction of keratin from wool and its use as biopolymer in film formation and in electrospinning for composite material processing. J Eng Fibers Fabr 2022; 17: 15589250221090499.

140.

Toskas

Cherif

Hund

, et al. Chitosan (PEO)/silica hybrid nanofibers as a potential biomaterial for bone regeneration. Carbohydr Polym 2013; 94(2): 713–722.

141.

Tanzli

Ehrmann

Electrospun nanofibrous membranes for tissue engineering and cell growth. Appl Sci 2021; 11(15): 1–19.

142.

Agarwal

Wendorff

Greiner

Use of electrospinning technique for biomedical applications. Polymer 2008; 49(26): 5603–5621.

143.

Kalahroodi

Shahidi

Moazzenchi

, et al. Viruses and bacteria – antiviral and antibacterial textile materials: A Review. Tekstilec 2024; 67: 78–100.

144.

Gulati

Sharma

RK.

Antimicrobial textile: recent developments and functional perspective. Polym Bull 2022; 79(8): 5747–5771.

145.

Coman

Oancea

Vrinceanu

Biofunctionalization of textile materials by antimicrobial treatments: a critical overview. Rom Biotechnol Lett 2010; 15: 4913–4921.

146.

Srour

Berg

Mahltig

, et al. Evaluation of antimicrobial textiles for atopic dermatitis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2019; 33(2): 384–390.

147.

Medha

Rajna

Devi

, et al. A comprehensive review on moth repellent finishing of woolen textiles. J Cult Herit 2021; 49: 260–271.

148.

Martinez

Gende

Alvarez

, et al. Biofunctional textiles: functional polymer-carriers with antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and repellent activity. In: Mishra

Hussain

(eds) Biobased Materials. Singapore: Springer Nature, 2022, pp. 227–258

149.

Wollina

Heide

Müller-Litz

, et al. Functional textiles in prevention of chronic wounds, wound healing and tissue engineering. Curr Probl Dermatol 2003; 31: 82–97.

150.

Fernandes

Padrão

Ribeiro

, et al. Polysaccharides and metal nanoparticles for functional textiles: a review. Nanomater 2022; 12(6): 1006.

151.

Mondal

Nanomaterials for UV protective textiles. J Ind Text 2022; 51(4_suppl): 5592S–5621S.

152.

Jagadeshvaran

Panwar

Ramakrishnan

, et al. Smart textiles coated with functional particles derived from sustainable sources that can block both UV and EM. Prog Org Coat 2021; 159: 106404.

153.

Klinkhammer

Weskott

Ratovo

, et al. Transmission reduction for UV and IR radiation with dyed lyocell knitted textiles. Appl Sci 2023; 13(9): 5432.

154.

Degenstein

Sameoto

Hogan

, et al. Smart textiles for visible and IR camouflage application: state-of-the-art and microfabrication path forward. Micromachines 2021; 12(7): 773.

155.

Cinquino

Prontera

Pugliese

, et al. Light-emitting textiles: device architectures, working principles, and applications. Micromachines 2021; 12(6): 652.

156.

Komeily-Nia

Montazer

Heidarian

, et al. Smart photoactive soft materials for environmental cleaning and energy production through incorporation of nanophotocatalyst on polymers and textiles. Polym Adv Technol 2019; 30(2): 235–253.

157.

Yuranova

Mosteo

Bandara

, et al. Self-cleaning cotton textiles surfaces modified by photoactive SiO₂/TiO₂ coating. J. Molecular Catal. A 2006; 244(1–2): 160–167.

158.

Mahltig

Textor

Akcakoca Kumbasar

Photobactericidal and photochromic textile materials realized by embedding of advantageous dye using sol-gel technology. Celal Bayar Univ J Sci 2015; 11(3): 306–315.

159.

Mahltig

Gutmann

Meyer

, et al. Solvothermal preparation of metallized titania sols for photocatalytic and antimicrobial coatings. J Mater Chem 2007; 17(22): 2367–2374.

160.

Boukhriss

Boyer

Hannache

, et al. Sol–gel based water repellent coatings for textiles. Cellulose 2015; 22(2): 1415–1425.

161.

Hassabo

El-Naggar

Mohamed

, et al. Development of multifunctional modified cotton fabric with tri-component nanoparticles of silver, copper and zinc oxide. Carbohydr Polym 2019; 210: 144–156.

162.

Abdul-Reda Hussein

Mahmoud

Alaziz

KMA

, et al. Antimicrobial finishing of textiles using nanomaterials. Braz J Biol 2024; 84: e264947.

163.

Sotiriou

Meyer

Knijnenburg

, et al. Quantifying the origin of released Ag⁺ ions from nanosilver. Langmuir 2012; 28(45): 15929–15936.

164.

Vigneshwaran

Kathe

Varadarajan

, et al. Functional finishing of cotton fabrics using silver nanoparticles. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 2007; 7(6): 1893–1897.

165.

Klemenčič

Tomšič

Kovač

, et al. Antimicrobial cotton fibres prepared by in situ synthesis of AgCl into a silica matrix. Cellulose 2012; 19(5): 1715–1729.

166.

Windler

Height

Nowack

Comparative evaluation of antimicrobials for textile applications. Environ Int 2013; 53: 62–73.

167.

Yaqoob

Umar

Ibrahim

MNM

. Silver nanoparticles: various methods of synthesis, size affecting factors and their potential applications–a review. Appl Nanosci 2020; 10(5): 1369–1378.

168.

Syafiuddin

Salim

Beng Hong Kueh

, et al. A review of silver nanoparticles: research trends, global consumption, synthesis, properties, and future challenges. J Chin Chem Soc 2017; 64(7): 732–756.

169.

Mahltig

Gutmann

Meyer

, et al. Thermal preparation and stabilization of crystalline silver particles in SiO₂-based coating solutions. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 2009; 49(2): 202–208.

170.

Creighton

Eadon

DG.

Ultraviolet-visible absorption spectra of the colloidal metallic elements. J Chem Soc Faraday Trans 1991; 87(24): 3881–3891.

171.

Salz

Lamber

Wark

, et al. Metal clusters in plasma polymer matrices part II. silver clusters. Phys Chem Chem Phys 1999; 1(18): 4447–4451.

172.

Chhatre

Solasa

Sakle

, et al. Color and surface plasmon effects in nanoparticle systems: case of silver nanoparticles by microemulsion route. Colloids Surf 2012; 404: 83–92.

173.

Sun

Xia

Gold and silver nanoparticles: a class of chromophores with colors tunable in the range from 400 to 750 nm. Analyst 2003; 128(6): 686–691.

174.

Román

Gomez

Solís

, et al. Antibacterial cotton fabric functionalized with copper oxide nanoparticles. Molecules 2020; 25(24): 5802.

175.

Mahltig

Functionalization of textile materials by using copper-containing coatings and pigments. Tekstilna Industrija 2024; 72(3): 4–10.

176.

Verbič

Gorjanc

Simončič

Zinc oxide for functional textile coatings: recent advances. Coatings 2019; 9(9): 550.

177.

Morais

Guedes

Lopes

MA.

Antimicrobial approaches for textiles: from research to market. Materials 2016; 9(6): 498.

178.

Tanasa

Teaca

Nechifor

, et al. Highly specialized textiles with antimicrobial functionality—advances and challenges. Textile 2023; 3(2): 219–245.

179.

Kim

Nakamatsu

Maurtua

, et al. Formation, antimicrobial activity, and controlled release from cotton fibers with deposited functional polymers. J Appl Polym Sci 2016; 133(8): 43054.

180.

Cerempei

Guguianu

Muresan

, et al. Antimicrobial controlled release systems for the knitted cotton fabrics based on natural substances. Fibers Polym 2015; 16(8): 1688–1695.

181.

Capjack

Kerr

Davis

, et al. Protection of humans form ultraviolet radiation through the use of textiles: a review. Fam Consum Sci Res J 1994; 23(2): 198–218.

182.

Zayat

Garcia-Parejo

Levy

Preventing UV-light damage of light sensitive materials using a highly protective UV-absorbing coating. Chem Soc Rev 2007; 36(8): 1270–1281.

183.

Jean-Louis Refrégier

. Relationship between UVA protection and skin response to UV light: proposal for labelling UVA protection. Int J Cosmet Sci 2004; 26(4): 197–206.

184.

Reinert

Fuso

Hilfiker

, et al. UV-protecting properties of textile fabrics and their improvement. Text Chem Color 1997; 29(2): 36.

185.

Mahltig

Böttcher

Rauch

, et al. Optimized UV protecting coatings by combination of organic and inorganic UV absorbers. Thin Solid Films 2005; 485(1–2): 108–114.

186.

Mahltig

Leisegang

Jakubik

, et al. Hybrid sol-gel materials for realization of radiation protective coatings - a review with emphasis on UV protective materials. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 2023; 107(1): 20–31.

187.

Sfameni

Hadhri

Rando

, et al. Inorganic finishing for textile fabrics: recent advances in wear-resistant, UV protection and antimicrobial treatments. Inorganics 2023; 11(1): 19.

188.

Al-Qahtani

Alkhamis

Alfi

, et al. Simple preparation of multifunctional luminescent textile for smart packaging. ACS Omega 2022; 7(23): 19454–19464.

189.

Selishchev

Karaseva

Uvaev

, et al. Effect of preparation method of functionalized textile materials on their photocatalytic activity and stability under UV irradiation. Chem Eng J 2013; 224: 114–120.

190.

Rahal

Pigot

Foix

, et al. Photocatalytic efficiency and self-cleaning properties under visible light of cotton fabrics coated with sensitized TiO₂. Appl Catal 2011; 104(3–4): 361–372.

191.

Tran Thi

Lee

. Development of multifunctional self-cleaning and UV blocking cotton fabric with modification of photoactive ZnO coating via microwave method. Photochem Photobiol 2017; 338: 13–22.

192.

Al-Mamun

Kader

Islam

, et al. Photocatalytic activity improvement and application of UV-TiO₂ photocatalysis in textile wastewater treatment: a review. J Environ Chem Eng 2019; 7(5): 103248.

193.

Böttcher

Mahltig

Sarsour

, et al. Qualitative investigations of the photocatalytic dye destruction by TiO₂-coated polyester fabrics. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 2010; 55(2): 177–185.

194.

Solovyeva

Selishchev

Cherepanova

, et al. Self-cleaning photoactive cotton fabric modified with nanocrystalline TiO₂ for efficient degradation of volatile organic compounds and DNA contaminants. Chem Eng J 2020; 388: 124167.

195.

Abid

Bouattour

Conceição

, et al. Hybrid cotton–anatase prepared under mild conditions with high photocatalytic activity under sunlight. RSC Adv 2016; 6(64): 58957–58969.

196.

Fei

Xin

JH.

Visible light-active iron-doped anatase nanocrystallites and their self-cleaning property. Thin Solid Films 2011; 519(8): 2438–2444.

197.

Katoueizadeh

Zebarjad

Janghorban

Synthesis and enhanced visible-light activity of N-doped TiO₂ nano-additives applied over cotton textiles. J Mater Res Technol 2018; 7(3): 204–211.

198.

Liao

Tjong

SC.

Visible-light active titanium dioxide nanomaterials with bactericidal properties. Nanomaterials 2020; 10(1): 124.

199.

Mahltig

Gutmann

Meyer

DC.

Solvothermal preparation of nanocrystalline anatase containing TiO₂ and TiO₂/SiO₂ coating agents for application of photocatalytic treatments. Mater Chem Phys 2011; 127(1-2): 285–291.

200.

Mahltig

Haufe

Kim

, et al. Manganese/TiO₂ composites prepared and used for photocatalytic active textiles. Croat Chem Acta 2013; 86(2): 143–149.

201.

Khattab

Rehan

Hamouda

Smart textile framework: Photochromic and fluorescent cellulosic fabric printed by strontium aluminate pigment. Carbohydr Polym 2018; 195: 143–152.

202.

Subaihi

Al-Qahtani

Attar

RMS

, et al. Preparation of fluorescent cotton fibers with antimicrobial activity using lanthanide-doped pigments. Cellulose 2022; 29(11): 6393–6404.

203.

Ahmed

Maamoun

Abdelrahman

, et al. Imparting cotton textiles glow-in-the-dark property along with other functional properties: photochromism, flame-retardant, water-repellency, and antimicrobial activity. Cellulose 2023; 30(6): 4041–4055.

204.

Abdelrahman

Elhadad

SSM

El-Naggar

, et al. Ultraviolet-sensitive photoluminescent spray-coated textile. Coatings 2022; 12(11): 1686.

205.

Duan

Wang

, et al. Electro-thermochromic luminescent fibers controlled by self-crystallinity phase change for advanced smart textiles. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2021; 13(48): 57943–57951.

206.

Jeong

Song

Seo

, et al. Battery-free, human-motion-powered light-emitting fabric: mechanoluminescent textile. Adv Sustain Syst 2017; 1(12): 1700126.

207.

Calisir

Erol

Kilic

, et al. Photophysical properties of phosphorescent elastomeric composite nanofibers. Dyes Pigm 2016; 125: 95–99.

208.

Esmaeili

Ghahari

Shafiee Afarani

, et al. Synthesis of ZnS–Mn nano-luminescent pigment for ink applications. J Coat Technol Res 2018; 15(6): 1325–1332.

209.

Mohamed

Khattab

Rehan

, et al. Mesoporous silica encapsulating ZnS nanoparticles doped Cu or Mn ions for warning clothes. Results Chem 2023; 5: 100689.

210.

Mahltig

Heil

Kaub

, et al. The use of phosphorescence micromaterials for commercial textile products. Commun Dev Assem Text Prod 2024; 5(1): 1–10.

211.

Kwon

Jung

, et al. Micro/nanostructured coating for cotton textiles that repel oil, water, and chemical warfare agents. Polymers 2020; 12(8): 1826.

212.

Schellenberger

Hill

Levenstam

, et al. Highly fluorinated chemicals in functional textiles can be replaced by re-evaluating liquid repellency and end-user requirements. J Clean Prod 2019; 217: 134–143.

213.

Türk

Ehrmann

Mahltig

Water-, oil-, and soil-repellent treatment of textiles, artificial leather, and leather. J Text Inst 2015; 106(6): 611–620.

214.

Synytska

Khanum

Ionov

, et al. Water-repellent textile via decorating fibers with amphiphilic janus particles. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2011; 3(4): 1216–1220.

215.

Bashari

Koohestani

AHS

Salamatipour

Eco-friendly dual-functional textiles: green water-repellent & anti-bacterial. Fibers Polym 2020; 21(2): 317–323.

216.

Bakar

Yusop

Ismail

, et al. Sol-gel finishing for protective fabrics. Biointerface Res Appl Chem 2023; 13(3): 283.

217.

Mahltig

Böttcher

Modified silica sol coatings for water-repellent textiles. J Sol-Gel Sci Technol 2003; 27(3): 43–52.

218.

Mahltig

Audenaert

Böttcher

Hydrophobic silica sol coatings on textiles—the influence of solvent and sol concentration. J Solgel Sci Technol 2005; 34(2): 103–109.

219.

İbili

Daşdemir

AgCl-TiO₂/dendrimer-based nanoparticles for superhydrophobic and antibacterial multifunctional textiles. J Text Inst 2023; 114(5): 861–873.

220.

Atav

Bariş

Dendrimer technology for water and oil repellent cotton textiles. AATCC J Res 2016; 3(2): 16–24.

221.

Akbari

Kozłowski

RM.

A review of application of amine-terminated dendritic materials in textile engineering. J Text Inst 2019; 110(3): 460–467.

222.

Mondal

MIH

Saha

. Fabrication of C6-fluorocarbon-dendrimer-based superhydrophobic cotton fabrics for multifunctional aspects. Cellulose 2023; 30(1): 639–663.

223.

Sfameni

Lawnick

Rando

, et al. Functional silane-based nanohybrid materials for the development of hydrophobic and water-based stain resistant cotton fabrics coatings. Nanomaterials 2022; 12(19): 3404.

224.

Tian

Wei

Zhang

Design of waterborne superhydrophobic fabrics with high impalement resistance and stretching stability by constructing elastic reconfigurable micro-/micro-/nanostructures. Langmuir 2023; 39(18): 6556–6567.

225.

Sundarrajan

Chandrasekaran

Ramakrishna

An update on nanomaterials-based textiles for protection and decontamination. J Am Ceram Soc 2010; 93(12): 3955–3975.

226.

Saleem

Zaidi

SJ.

Sustainable use of nanomaterials in textiles and their environmental impact. Materials 2020; 13(22): 5134.

227.

Chadha

Selvaraj

Vishak Thanu

, et al. A review of the function of using carbon nanomaterials in membrane filtration for contaminant removal from wastewater. Mater Res Express 2022; 9: 012003.

228.

Otrisal

Obsel

Buk

, et al. Preparation of filtration sorptive materials from nanofibers, bicofibers, and textile adsorbents without binders employment. Nanomaterials 2018; 8(8): 564.

229.

Rivero

Urrutia

Goicoechea

, et al. Nanomaterials for functional textiles and fibers. Nanoscale Res Lett 2015; 10(1): 501.

230.

Mohraz

Beitollahi

, et al. Assessment of the potential release of nanomaterials from electrospun nanofiber filter media. NanoImpact 2020; 19: 100231.

231.

Escribá

Thome Da Silva

BAT

Lourenço

, et al. Incorporation of nanomaterials on the electrospun membrane process with potential use in water treatment. Colloids Surf 2021; 624: 126775.

232.

Karagoz

Kiremitler

Sarp

, et al. Antibacterial, antiviral, and self-cleaning mats with sensing capabilities based on electrospun nanofibers decorated with ZnO nanorods and Ag nanoparticles for protective clothing applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2021; 13(4): 5678–5690.

233.

Ungur

Hrůza

Modified polyurethane nanofibers as antibacterial filters for air and water purification. RSC Adv 2017; 7(78): 49177–49187.

234.

Jawad

Mohammed

Alsaffar

MR.

Performed of filter nano textile for purification of aerosol water by electrospinning technique. J Phys Conf Ser 2019; 1298(1): 012023.

235.

Lee

Joshi

, et al. Water purification and toxicity control of chlorophenols by 3D nanofiber membranes decorated with photocatalytic titania nanoparticles. Ceram Int 2014; 40(2): 3305–3313.

236.

Karahaliloglu

Hacker

Demirbilek

, et al. Photocatalytic performance of melt-electrospun polypropylene fabric decorated with TiO₂ nanoparticles. J Nanopart Res 2014; 16(9): 1–14.

237.

Sohrabi

Abbasi

Sadighzadeh

Fabrication and evaluation of electrospun polyacrylonitrile/silver nanofiber membranes for air filtration and antibacterial activity. Polym Bull 2023; 80(5): 5481–5499.

238.

Felix Swamidoss

Bangaru

Nalathambi

, et al. Silver-incorporated poly vinylidene fluoride nanofibers for bacterial filtration. Aerosol Sci Technol 2019; 53(2): 196–206.

239.

Kredel

Gallei

Ozone-degradable fluoropolymers on textile surfaces for water and oil repellency. ACS Appl Polym Mater 2020; 2(7): 2867–2879.

240.

Jeong

Lee

, et al. Photobiocidal-triboelectric nanolayer coating of photosensitizer/silica-alumina for reusable and visible-light-driven antibacterial/antiviral air filters. Chem Eng J 2022; 440: 135830.

Nanomaterials and textiles: Review on materials and applications

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Nanomaterials and combinations on textiles

Nanoparticles

Sol-gel technology

Spin doping

Effect pigments

Surface structuring

Electrospinning

Functional properties and related applications

Antimicrobial

UV protection

Photoactive

Luminescent materials

Repellent materials

Filtration

Conclusions and future perspectives

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Declaration of conflicting interests

Funding

ORCID iD

References