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Abstract

With research highlighting the increasing prevalence and severity of body image and eating disturbances in males, particularly athletes and regular gymnasium users, the current study examined body image and eating disturbances in a sample of male gym users and non–gym users (N = 180). Based on previous research, it was predicted that male gym users would report greater body image disturbance (e.g., body image avoidance and body dissatisfaction) and eating pathology, compared with non–gym users. Results of the study partially supported hypotheses, revealing body dissatisfaction and eating pathology were significantly increased in male gym users. However, no significant differences were observed in body image avoidance behaviors, though this is likely because of methodological limitations associated with psychometric measures selected. The study provides preliminary evidence that male gym users do experience subclinical eating and body image concerns, with some also experiencing clinically significant symptoms that could be precursors to the later development of an eating disorder. Results of the current study highlight the importance of educating key stakeholders within health and fitness centers, through community-based interventions, to increase awareness regarding male body image and eating disturbances.

Keywords

body image mental health exercise general health and wellness

Although body image disturbance has been highlighted within literature since the 1960s, only within the past two decades has empirical research dedicated adequate attention to body image disturbance and associated behavioral dysfunctions in males (Cafri et al., 2005). Historically, disturbance in body image has been viewed as a female-orientated problem; however, recent research suggests that there is increasing parity between males and females in terms of the prevalence and severity of body image concerns, with a large proportion of males pursuing an ideal body that differs substantiality from their current body (Murray, Rieger, Karlov, & Touyz, 2013). Although gender-specific perspectives suggest that female body image concerns are related to drive for thinness, whereas male body image disturbance is concerned with drive for muscularity, recent research suggests that body image concerns in men are more complex and heterogeneous than initial thoughts (Hildebrandt, Alfano, Langenbucher, 2010). That is, men do not solely pursue muscularity but are also concerned with achieving leanness and weight loss.

For most males, the ideal body can be described as muscular and lean, encompassing well-defined “washboard” abdominal muscles, broad shoulders, and a large chest; a physique increasingly difficult to achieve without the use of appearance- and/or performance-enhancing substances. Research indicates a percentage of men also desire extreme leanness (e.g., male haute couture models). Body dissatisfaction among males can facilitate the development of both anorexia nervosa and muscle dysmorphia, which serve as opposing extremes on a scale of body image psychopathology (Murray et al., 2013).

Despite the persistence of body image concerns for both males and females, research suggests that the importance of attaining these ideals for men has recently strengthened because of evolving gender roles and greater emphasis on male physical appearance within popular media (Gray & Ginsberg, 2007). For example, recent research has revealed that body image concerns in males have almost tripled over the past 30 years, increasing from 15% to 43% (Farquhar & Wasylkiw, 2007). Although research indicates that these concerns are evident in both adulthood and adolescence, specific subgroups of men may be even more vulnerable, including athletes and gym users (Petrie & McFarland, 2009). These individuals are thought to be more prone to adopting risky and/or disordered behaviors (e.g., restrictive eating, fasting, frequent meal skipping, binging and purging, and use of diet pills, laxatives, and enemas) to achieve and maintain a desired body shape and weight. The aim of the present study was to examine body image disturbance (i.e., body image avoidance and body dissatisfaction combined) and eating pathology in a sample of male gymnasium (hereafter referred to as “gym”) users and compare findings with a sample of non–gym users to determine whether significant differences exist.

Because of the complexity of body image and body image disturbance, a plethora of studies have been conducted over the years, investigating various components. A common conclusion across these studies is that body image disturbance serves as an important risk factor in the development of eating disturbances and other unhealthy behaviors (Parent, 2013). However, the majority of research, to date, has focused on females. This research has primarily assessed attitudinal and cognitive measures of body image disturbance such as body dissatisfaction and distorted perception of body size, as opposed to behavioral mechanisms (e.g., body image avoidance behaviors).

Avoidance behaviors typically refer to a range of behaviors intended to avoid information regarding one’s shape, weight, or size. These behaviors may include avoidance of mirrors, not weighing oneself, wearing loose-fitted clothing, and avoidance of revealing clothing and/or situations in which revealing clothing may be required (e.g., the beach or swimming pools; Walker, Anderson, & Hildebrandt, 2009). According to cognitive behavioral and transdiagnostic theories, body image avoidance behaviors represent a behavioral manifestation of core eating disorder psychopathology, and serve to maintain eating and body-related concerns (Shafran, Fairburn, Robinson, & Lask, 2004). Body image avoidance has also been positively associated with increased shape and weight concerns (i.e., body dissatisfaction) in both clinical and nonclinical female samples (Farrell, Lee, & Shafran, 2004; Reas, Grilo, & Masheb, 2006). Insight into the role of body image avoidance in males is limited, particularly within gym-user samples. To enhance the current body of literature, investigation of body image avoidance behaviors in male samples is required.

Within current literature, it is widely reported that women in Western societies are dissatisfied with their bodies and physical appearance, and often engage in body-related behaviors such as excessive body checking and avoidance. As concerns about weight and shape are increasingly prevalent among women, researchers now consider body image disturbances in Western cultures to be a normative discontent (Tantleff-Dunn, Barnes, & Larose, 2011). Despite this, research has revealed it continues to be less acceptable for males to admit or report experiences of body image disturbance. This finding may not be far-reaching given the stigmatization of emotional expression for men. Other researchers have also suggested that men fear being stereotyped as feminine should they acknowledge body dissatisfaction, negative affect, or engagement in body avoidant behaviors (Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2000).

This perceived (or actual) taboo of men admitting to body image disturbance, combined with the increasing pressure to achieve particular body ideals, has placed men in a predicament (Pope et al., 2000). Research has noted that not only have men reported pressure to attain perfection, they have also communicated that open discontent with their bodies is inappropriate (Adams, Turner, & Bucks, 2005). In other words, there is parallel pressure for males to portray a lack of care about their appearance, yet also work toward adhering to a particular stereotype. This parallel pressure has been revealed in research, with one study demonstrating that some adolescents known to attend local health and fitness centers to increase muscularity also denied engagement in behaviors such as weight lifting (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2006). As males are less likely to disclose body image disturbance, it is more likely to go undetected. These findings highlight the importance of careful and accurate assessment of body image disturbance in males. It further indicates that although body dissatisfaction and body avoidance behaviors in men are increasing, it may be an underrepresentation of the real problem.

Body image disturbance is a complex construct. Research supports the notion that body image disturbance (particularly body dissatisfaction) is an important risk factor in the development of body image–related disorders, including eating disorders, body dysmorphia, and exercise dependence (Parent, 2013). Within literature, body image disturbance has been linked to a number of negative outcomes, particularly risk-taking behaviors, including anabolic androgenic steroid use and use of other performance-enhancing substances (Leifman, Rehnman, Sjöblom, & Holgersson, 2011), disordered eating (Mangweth et al., 2004), excessive exercise (Brown & Graham, 2008), and overtraining syndrome (Parent, 2013). Although most males do not develop clinically significant body image disturbance, these high-risk behaviors highlight the extent to which some individuals are willing to compromise their health for a desired and often unattainable image. Similarly, while research has revealed that eating disorders and subclinical disordered eating behaviors are more prevalent in male athletes, particularly those who compete in sports requiring strict weight control, there has been limited research investigating the role of regular gym use and the potential impact of the “gym culture” in the development of eating pathology and body image disturbance.

Of the few studies that have investigated the potential impact of exercise and gym use, one study revealed that the epidemiological prevalence of appearance- and performance-enhancing substances (e.g., anabolic steroids and other nonprescription substances for muscle gain) within the general population was highest in gym users, particularly those engaged in regular weight lifting and bodybuilding (Kanayama, Gruber, Pope, Borowiecki, & Hudson, 2001; Kanayama, Pope, & Hudson, 2001; Perry, Lund, Deninger, Kutsoner, & Schneider, 2005). Within male body image research, bodybuilding has been of particular focus. Bodybuilders have been reported to experience distorted body image (Ravaldi et al., 2003), body dissatisfaction (Esco, Olson, & Williford, 2005), exercise dependence (Smith & Hale, 2005), and disordered eating and psychological characteristics similar to eating disorder sufferers (Mangweth et al., 2004). Based on these findings, the importance of investigating male body image concerns within the gym subculture is evident, particularly given the increasing number of males striving for masculine physiques.

Although the findings of bodybuilders may not directly relate to recreational gym users, who may not necessarily aim to create a “performance physique,” some evidence has revealed the majority of gym users do desire gains in muscle mass. Research has also demonstrated that the discrepancies between actual and desired body image ideals are equal in all gym users, regardless of participation in competitive sports. For example, in one study (e.g., Jankauskienė, Kardelis, & Pajaujienė, 2007), 61.2% of gym users (N = 132) reported that they were dissatisfied with their muscle size at the time of the study. Furthermore, research suggests that muscle size and body dissatisfaction is even greater in recreational gym users compared with experienced bodybuilders because of activity mastery. That is, recreational gym users who engage in weight and strengthening exercises are considered lower in mastery (i.e., beginners) of that activity, with greater mastery typically associated with greater muscle size and muscularity. Lower mastery has also been linked to greater preoccupation with body shape, obsessive exercise attitudes, distress, and anxiety if a workout opportunity is missed, and increased risk and engagement in harmful behaviors (e.g., use of performance- or appearance-enhancing substances).

Further perpetuating these issues is the emergence of current obesity concerns within Western society, with health and fitness increasingly viewed and constructed as a mainstream moral responsibility (Wright & MacDonald, 2010). Behaviors such as excessive exercise and chaotic dieting are now viewed as acceptable (even admired and reinforced) within society, as opposed to attracting concern for disordered behavior potentially serving to mask negative affect associated with body image disturbance. Despite these concerns, there is no denying that regular, planned exercise has a range of health-related benefits, including improved fitness, reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, increases in longevity, and improvements in psychological well-being (Brown, Mishra, Lee, & Bauman, 2000; Scully, Kremer, Meade, Graham, & Dudgeon, 1998).

For example, one meta-analytic study (e.g., Hausenblas & Fallon, 2006) revealed that individuals who engaged in regular exercise had greater body image satisfaction, compared with nonexercisers. However, other studies (e.g., Loland, 2000) have reported that inactive men were more satisfied with their bodies than active men (N = 1,555) and indicated associations between appearance-related exercise motivations and disordered eating (Furnham & Calnan, 1998). Possibly the motivation underlying exercise behaviors is more important than the activity or frequency alone. Therefore, excessive levels of drive for muscularity, resulting in excessive levels of exercise within a gym culture, could potentially jeopardize both physical and psychological health (Parent, 2013).

In an attempt to explain body image disturbance in males, social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) proposes that individuals are driven to engage in upward and downward social comparisons to determine their place within a larger societal context, with body dissatisfaction often the result of upward comparisons. Research suggests that specific subgroups of men could be even more vulnerable to engaging in unfavorable social comparisons (e.g., bodybuilders); however, the underlying mechanisms explaining this increased vulnerability within certain subgroups remain unclear. Despite this, excessive self-focus/awareness has been linked to negative affect and disordered eating (Ainley & Taskiris, 2013). Similarly, self-objectification (a form of self-focus, characterized by habitual monitoring of the body’s outward appearance leading to adoption of an outsider perspective of one’s body) has also been applied to men (Hallsworth, Wade, & Tiggemann, 2005; Peat & Muehlenkamp, 2011). Although this theory has traditionally been used to understand body image disturbance and eating pathology in women, the theory suggests that male gym users may have a stronger focus on their appearance (public self-awareness) than functionality (private self-awareness). Several studies have supported this proposition, suggesting that investment in appearance alone does not necessarily predict body image psychopathology (Pickett, Lewis, & Cash, 2005). Body image disturbance appears to be the result of both heightened investment and social evaluation/comparison, consistent with social comparison theory and self-objectification.

The Current Study

Given the paucity of literature pertaining to body image and eating disturbances in male gym users, the current study aimed to examine body image avoidance, body dissatisfaction, and eating pathology in a sample of local gymnasium users and compare findings with a sample of male non–gymnasium users. As the majority of research investigating body image disturbance in males has focused heavily on body dissatisfaction (cognitive/affective), rather than body image avoidance (behavioral), the current study incorporated both cognitive and behavioral components. Consistent with previous research, it was hypothesized that adult male gym users would have greater body image disturbance (avoidance and dissatisfaction) and eating pathology.

Method

Participants

A convenience sample composed of 180 male adults volunteered to participate in the primary investigation. Participants were recruited via social media (i.e., Facebook) and flyers posted in gyms/health and fitness centers on the Gold Coast. Participants were also students who attended the University Sports Center. A number of inclusion criteria were developed, including male gender, aged between 18 and 65 years, engaging in exercise at health and fitness centers (gym users sample criterion). Participants who met the age and sex criteria, but were not engaging in health and fitness activities at a gym were used as a comparison group (non–gym users). Of the 180 adult male participants, the final sample comprised 140 adult male gym users, aged 18 to 65 years (M = 33.83 years, SD = 11.44), and 40 non–gym users, aged 18 to 63 years (M = 38.93 years, SD = 10.87).

Of the gym users sample, 37 participants (17%) reported that they had been attending a gym for less than 11 months, whereas 103 (73%) reported that they had been attending a gym for more than 12 months. Participants differed across exercise duration. Four participants (3%) reported they spent 20 minutes training, 10 (7%) reported 30 minutes training, 22 (16%) reported 40 minutes training, 25 (18%) reported 50 minutes training, while 79 (56%) reported spending 60 minutes or more training at the gym. Approximately, 83% of the sample (n = 116) was Caucasian and the majority were employed (87.9%, n = 124).

Of the non–gym users sample, numerous reasons for not attending a gym were reported. One participant reported location difficulties (2.5%), 4 reported financial constraints (10%), 16 reported time restraints (40%), 8 reported a combination of time and money (20%), 3 reported motivation difficulties (7.5%), and 8 (20%) reported “other” (e.g., parenting responsibilities). Approximately, 80% of the sample (n = 32) was Caucasian and all participants reported current employment (n = 40).

Measures

Demographic Questions

Participants were asked to provide demographic information (e.g., age, weight, height, level of education, occupational status, marital status, ethnicity, frequency and duration of exercise, length of contact with health and fitness centers) for the purpose of describing the sample. Self-reported height and weight were used to calculate each participant’s body mass index.

Body Image Avoidance

Participants were asked to complete the Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire (BIAQ; Rosen, Srebnik, Saltzberg, & Wendt, 1991). The BIAQ is a self-report measure of behavioral tendencies, which have been identified to accompany body image disturbance (Legenbauer, Vocks, & Schütt-Strömel, 2007). The BIAQ consists of 19 items, divided into four factors: clothing, social activities, eating restraint and grooming and weighing (Rosen et al., 1991). All items are measured on a 6-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 5 (always). Higher scores were indicative of greater frequency of exhibited behaviors accompanying body image disturbance. Given controversy regarding factor structure of the BIAQ within research, the current study used a total score, rather than specific subscales to provide a more robust measure of body image avoidance. However, in general, research has reported the BIAQ to be a mostly valid and psychometrically sound instrument, with internal consistencies ranging between .64 and .80 (Maïano, Morin, Monthuy-Blanc, & Garbarino, 2009) and good temporal stability across ages and gender (Legenbauer et al., 2007). The BIAQ has been reported to discriminate well between clinical and nonclinical populations, with individuals diagnosed with bulimia nervosa obtaining higher scores than control groups (Campana et al., 2012.

Eating Pathology

The Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire–Version 6 (EDE-Q 6.0; Fairburn & Beglin, 2008) was administered to obtain a measure of disordered eating over the previous 28-day period. The EDE-Q contains 28 self-report items that provide a global measure and four subscale scores: restraint, eating concern, shape concern and weight concern. Participants were asked to respond to each item on a 7-point Likert-type scale (0 = never to 6 = everyday), with higher scores reflective of greater eating-related pathology. For the purpose of the current study, the global concern scale was used to represent disordered eating in the main analyses.

The EDE-Q has been rigorously tested with substantial research supporting robust psychometric properties across clinical and nonclinical populations. Research supports the ability for the EDE-Q to differentiate between clinical and nonclinical cases of eating pathology (Berg, Peterson, Frazier, & Crow, 2012). Recent psychometric evaluation has demonstrated that the EDE-Q has good reliability in both male and female nonclinical and clinical samples, with good internal consistency across the four subscales (α = .70-.93; Berg et al., 2012) and adequate temporal stability across community and clinical samples (Reas et al., 2006).

Body Dissatisfaction

In an attempt to provide a multimodal measure of body image disturbance, body dissatisfaction was assessed using two items from the EDE-Q (the eating pathology measure). An identical approach has been used previously by Mond et al. (2013). These items were derived from the weight and shape concerns subscales of the EDE-Q, including, “How dissatisfied have you felt about your weight?” and “How dissatisfied have you felt about your shape?” Participants were asked to respond a 7-point Likert-type scale (0 = not at all to 6 = markedly). Similar to Mond et al. (2013), scores on the single items were highly correlated (r = .86); therefore an average score across the two items was used. Although previous research has confirmed that the full shape/weight concerns subscale of the EDE-Q is valid and psychometrically sound (refer to the “Eating Pathology” subsection for further information), no psychometric information regarding the modified shape/weight concerns subscale used in the current study and Mond et al. (2013) was available. Reliability analyses in the current study revealed an internal consistency of .81 for the combined “weight and shape dissatisfaction” score.

Procedure

The research was approved by the University Human Research Ethics Committee. Participants were recruited either through an information sheet at community health and fitness centers or via Facebook, a social networking site, created by the student researcher. Participants who were recruited through the health and fitness centers and wished to participate in the questionnaire followed the provided web link on the information sheet or completed a hard copy located on a designated table at the entrance of the center.

Participants who completed a hard copy were provided with an explanatory statement and were able to place the completed document in a confidential box located at the health and fitness centers. Participants who accessed the survey via the web link were provided with an online explanatory statement prior to participating in the study. Clicking on the link to complete the online survey indicated consent. Participation was completely voluntary. At the completion of the survey, contact information for support services was provided and all participants were given the option to have their responses withdrawn, without penalty.

Results

The data were analyzed using SPSS (Version 22.0). An alpha level of .05 was used to determine the statistical significance of all results.

Preliminary Analyses

A series of independent t tests and chi-square analyses were performed to determine whether the groups differed based on demographic variables. Results of these analyses revealed no significant differences between the groups in relation to body mass index t(178) = 0.36, p = .717; ethnicity χ²(4) = 1.48, p = .832; education χ²(5) = 8.09, p = .151; or employment status χ²(5) = 5.43 p = .366. The two groups did differ significantly in terms of age t(178) = 2.51, p = .013, with the age of the non–gym users group significantly greater (M = 38.93 years, SD = 10.88) than the gym users group (M = 33.83 years, SD = 11.44). As a result, age served as a covariate in the main analyses.

Results of the EDE-Q also revealed apparent differences between gym users and non–gym users in the areas of dietary restraint, excessive exercise, objective binge episodes, and self-induced vomiting. As can be seen in Table 1, there appeared to be a greater frequency of singular and regular objective binge episodes and excessive exercise in the gym-users group, compared with non–gym users. There also appeared to greater restraint, occurrences of self-induced vomiting and laxative misuse in gym-users, when compared with non–gym users.

Table 1.

Proportion of Male Gym Users and Non–Gym Users Engaging in Disordered Eating Behaviors.

	Gym users, n (%)		Non–gym users, n (%)
Disordered eating behavior	Any occurrence	Regular occurrences	Any occurrence	Regular occurrences
Objective binge episodes	49 (35.0)	28 (20.1)	9 (22.5)	4 (10.0)
Excessive exercise	60 (42.9)	18 (12.8)	3 (7.5)	—
Dietary restraint	20 (15.0)	—	3 (7.5)	—
Self-induced vomiting	3 (2.14)	1 (<1%)	—	—
Laxative misuse	1 (<1)	—	—	—

Main Analyses: Multivariate Analysis of Covariance

A one-way between-subjects multivariate analysis of covariance was performed to investigate the difference between adult male gym users and non–gym users across reported levels of eating pathology (including the global EDE score and four subscales), body image avoidance, and body dissatisfaction. Age was included as a covariate based on the significant difference observed between groups. Preliminary analyses revealed Box’s M test of homogeneity of variance-covariance was significant (p < .001) indicating a violation of this assumption. Given sample sizes were unequal and Box’s M was significant, robustness of results was not guaranteed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013). In accordance with recommendations outlined by Tabachnick and Fidell (2013), Pillai’s criterion was therefore used to evaluate multivariate main effects.

Analyses for the Dependent Variables (Combined)

With the use of Pillai’s criterion, a statistically significant multivariate main effect was revealed for group membership F(3, 175) = 7.87, p < .001, partial η² = .12, power = .99, indicating male gym users and non–gym users differed on the three variables combined (see Table 2).

Table 2.

Means and Standard Deviations for the Dependent Variables Across Groups and the Total Sample (N = 180).

	Gym users (n = 140)		Non–gym users (n = 40)		Total (N = 180)
Variable	M	SD	M	SD	M	SD
Eating pathology	1.30	0.98	0.59	0.42	1.14	0.94
Body image avoidance	23.72	8.38	23.21	14.07	23.61	9.90
Body dissatisfaction	1.66	1.58	1.08	1.10	1.53	1.50

Body Dissatisfaction

As can be seen in Table 2, results revealed a significant difference in body dissatisfaction between the two groups, t(178) = −2.18, p = .003 (two-tailed), d = .44, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [0.06, 1.12], indicating gym users were significantly more dissatisfied with their bodies than non–gym users.

Body Image Avoidance

Results revealed a nonsignificant difference in reported body image avoidance between groups, t(178) = −0.29, p = .772 (two-tailed), d = .04, 95% CI = [−2.99, 4.02], indicating there were no significant differences in reported body image avoidance between gym users and non–gym users.

Eating Pathology

Because of a violation of homoscedasticity, Welch’s t test was used to compare reported eating pathology across adult male gym users and non–gym users. Results revealed a significant difference in eating pathology between groups, t(178) = 4.40, p < .001 (two tailed), d = .60, 95% CI = [0.39, 1.02], with gym users reporting greater eating pathology scores compared with non–gym users.

Discussion

Until recently, literature within the area of body image and eating disturbances has focused heavily on diverse female samples, neglecting to examine males. With emerging evidence highlighting the growing prevalence of body image concerns and subclinical eating behaviors among males, and the potential impact of gymnasium environments, the aim of the current study was to examine body image disturbance (body dissatisfaction and body image avoidance) and eating pathology in a sample of male gym users and non–gym users. Overall, results indicated that significant differences existed between male gym users and non–gym users.

Consistent with research which has revealed that body image concerns in males have almost tripled over the past 30 years, results of the current study indicated that the majority of the sample (gym users and non–gym users combined) endorsed some level of dissatisfaction with their weight and shape. This finding is also consistent with research (e.g., Murray et al., 2013; Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki, & Cohane, 2004; Petrie & McFarland, 2009; Walker et al., 2009), suggesting that a considerable proportion of men within society are experiencing body dissatisfaction. However, despite these general concerns, specific subgroups of men (e.g., athletes and gym users) are thought to be more vulnerable (Petrie & McFarland, 2009).

Over the years, several studies have examined group differences across professional athletes, bodybuilders, and recreational gym users; however, conflicting results have been revealed. For example, bodybuilders and recreational gym users have been identified in research to report higher rates of shape preoccupation, distorted body image (Ravaldi et al., 2003), body dissatisfaction (Esco et al., 2005), exercise dependence (Smith & Hale, 2005), and disordered eating and psychological characteristics similar to eating disorder sufferers (Mangweth et al., 2004). Yet other studies have suggested that bodybuilders also experience psychological benefits of lower self-criticism and higher scores on self-concept (Dosil, 2008). Although confusion still exists, it is still widely accepted within the literature that some sporting disciplines (e.g., gymnastics and wrestling) can serve as a risk factor for the development of body image disturbance and disordered eating (Thompson & Sherman, 2010).

Within literature, body image disturbance has been linked to a number of negative outcomes, particularly risk-taking behaviors, including anabolic androgenic steroid use (Leifman et al., 2011) and use of other performance-enhancing substances, disordered eating (Mangweth et al., 2004), excessive exercise (Brown & Graham, 2008), and overtraining syndrome (Parent, 2013). Although most males do not develop clinically significant body image disturbance, these high-risk behaviors highlight the extent to which some individuals are willing to compromise their health for a desired and unattainable image. Similarly, additional research (e.g., Jankauskienė, Kardelis, & Pajaujienė, 2007) suggests that muscle size and body dissatisfaction are even greater in recreational gymnasium users, compared with experienced bodybuilders, because of lower activity mastery which is typically associated with reduced muscle size and muscularity.

Consistent with the hypotheses, results of the current study revealed that male gym users endorsed higher dissatisfaction with their body when compared with non–gym users. Although the underlying mechanism of this finding is unclear and no comparison with a professional bodybuilding sample was used, results of the current study are possibly consistent with previous suggestions regarding activity mastery; however, further research would be required to confirm this. This finding is consistent with Loland’s (2000) study that investigated Norwegian inactive and active adults; however, it is inconsistent with a meta-analytic study (e.g., Hausenblas & Fallon, 2006), which indicated individuals who engaged in exercise endorsed greater body satisfaction. One explanation for this finding possible relates to exercise motivations and the type of exercise undertaken (e.g., aerobic vs. strengthening), which are likely to influence an individual’s desire for muscularity, thinness, or general health improvement. For example, some studies have revealed qualitative components of exercise such as “exercising to control weight/shape” have been associated with body image disturbance and disordered eating (Brehm & Steffen, 2013). Thus, it appears that the reasons or motivations for exercising have a much greater impact on disordered eating, than merely exercise frequency alone. Future research should attempt to incorporate these elements to provide a more robust understanding of body image and eating disturbance in men.

In terms of body image avoidance behaviors, results of the current study were inconsistent with expectations, revealing that there were no significant differences between male gym users and non–gym users in body image avoidance. There are several explanations for this finding. First, a review of mean scores across groups indicated body image avoidance was a concern for both groups, possibly suggesting men in society are experiencing body avoidance tendencies regardless of engagement in a gymnasium environment. Several methodological limitations are also likely to explain the nonsignificant difference between groups, particularly the use of a measure which focused heavily on female-oriented body image concerns, combined with psychometric (i.e., reliability) limitations which have been debated within literature.

In terms of eating pathology, results of the current study were consistent with hypotheses, revealing that male gym users endorsed greater disordered eating behaviors compared with non–gym users. This is consistent with previous research where athletes have reported greater eating disorder tendencies (Engel et al., 2003) and bodybuilders have exhibited similar levels of disordered eating compared with men with eating disorders (Mangweth et al., 2004). There are a number of reasons that may be contributing to the present results. First, gym users may engage in disordered eating as a coping strategy to concerns regarding weight and shape, with motivations to engage in gym use fundamentally related to this concern about the body. It is also possible that pressure from the environment in which they train may facilitate or encourage disordered eating behavior and chaotic dietary regimes through direct or observational learning. Overall, this finding is consistent with previous research that has examined male athletes (e.g., Petrie, Greenleaf, Reel, & Carter, 2008) and community samples (e.g., Hallsworth et al., 2005), suggesting that males do engage in dietary behaviors (possibly as a method of weight control to obtain ideal physiques), which could potentially lead to long-term health consequences.

Limitations

While the current study has certain strengths, including its attempt to investigate body image avoidance behaviors in men, a number of limitations are noted. Overall, the primary limitation of the current study relates to the failure to use measures purposively designed to capture muscularity-focused body image disturbance. While the majority of current validated measures tend to assess the drive for thinness, recent research has resulted in the development of instruments that measure male-specific body image concerns (Griffiths, Murray, & Touyz, 2013). Both measures (body image avoidance behaviors and body dissatisfaction) used in the current study appeared to focus on female-orientated concerns (e.g., perceptions of fatness on one’s stomach/thighs/hips, weight loss, and calorie restriction). Thus, it is possible that these measures may have overlooked key aspects of male body image disturbances and not captured the full spectrum of this experience in males. Future research should attempt to measure fat- and muscularity-related body image concerns to ensure that the full spectrum of male body disturbance can be assessed.

A similar limitation is also noted for the measurement of eating pathology, as the used measure (e.g., EDE) contained mostly thinness-orientated items, which may not pertain to the muscular ideal. However, limited research has been conducted in this area, therefore implementing a male-specific measure to predict disordered eating was difficult. Future research may explore reconceptualization of disordered eating in males, focusing on rules that underlie disordered eating and consideration of the differences between males who desire thinness and eat infrequently, compared with others who desire increased muscularity and eat often (Griffiths et al., 2013).

The current study also entails sampling limitations that affect the generalizability of results. First, the sample was self-selected; therefore participants who elected to participate may differ from the overall population (i.e., participants may have been more comfortable and willing to discussing body image disturbance and eating pathology). Furthermore, the sample was largely Caucasian and most had engaged in tertiary education, which may have affected the attitudes held toward their bodies. It would be beneficial for future research to recruit participants based on exercise type and/or examine the use of other health risk behaviors (e.g., ingestion of nutritional supplements). As the current study failed to identify exercise type (i.e., aerobic vs. strengthening) and the frequency of these specific activities, it is difficult to determine the impact of specific exercises on body image and eating disturbance. It is possible that those who engage primarily in weight-bearing gym activities may experience different body dissatisfaction and eating behaviors, compared with those who engage in cardiovascular or aerobic activities, or a combination of both. It would also be beneficial for future research to include a group of nonexercisers, in addition to non–gym users, to determine the unique impact of exercise and the gym environment.

Clinical Implications

Despite noted limitations, results of the current study revealed that a large proportion of male gym users (and some non–gym users) within the sample endorsed a degree of disordered eating behaviors, including both objective binge eating and dietary restraint. These findings are reflective of the high rates of subclinical disordered eating behaviors within the community, particularly males who participate in exercise at gyms, highlighting the need for community based-interventions. In general, these community-based interventions should focus on both eating behavior and associated risk factors such as body image disturbance and warning signs associated with excessive exercise. Gym users and key stakeholders associated with health and fitness centers (e.g., personal trainers), in addition to the wider community, are likely to benefit from greater education regarding healthy and unhealthy eating and exercise-related behaviors.

An important step in providing psychoeducation to key health professionals (i.e., personal trainers, health and fitness centers, prospective gym users, coaches) might be where a primary prevention approach is adopted. Educating professionals is also likely to help increase awareness of early warning signs. This may play a vital role in diminishing some of the stigma and shame associated with body image concerns and disordered eating in adult males, particularly recreational gym users. Overall, it would be beneficial to investigate the impact of gym cultures on disordered eating and excessive exercise (Pritchard, Rush, & Milligan, 2007), and determine methods and strategies as to how this might be challenged and modified to assist in reducing body image and eating disturbances.

Concluding Remarks

Overall, the current study provides preliminary evidence that a considerable number of male gym users experience subclinical concerns, with some also experiencing clinically significant symptoms that could be precursors to the later development of an eating disorder. Our findings indicate that significant differences in body dissatisfaction and eating pathology exists between gym users and non–gym users, highlighting the potential benefit of community-based interventions and importance of educating key stakeholders within health and fitness centers to increase awareness regarding male body image and eating disturbances.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Body Image Avoidance,Body Dissatisfaction,and Eating Pathology

Abstract

Keywords

The Current Study

Method

Participants

Measures

Demographic Questions

Body Image Avoidance

Eating Pathology

Body Dissatisfaction

Procedure

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Main Analyses: Multivariate Analysis of Covariance

Analyses for the Dependent Variables (Combined)

Body Dissatisfaction

Body Image Avoidance

Eating Pathology

Discussion

Limitations

Clinical Implications

Concluding Remarks

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

References