The Information Age has brought to the medical and surgical community the tools of digital imaging and 3-dimensional (3-D) visualization. These tools provide new methods for diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Using 3-D reconstructions from computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging scans of patient-specific anatomy, diagnosis from virtual endoscopy is supplementing or replacing invasive endoscopic procedures. These same images can be used for preoperative planning of complicated procedures. At the time of surgery, data fusion of the real-time video image and the preoperative digital image provides intraoperative stereotactic navigation. These augmentations can be used in many types of procedures, from open and minimally invasive surgery to catheter-based and energy-directed therapies. This is a US government work. There are no restrictions on its use.
Lorensen WE, Jolesz FA, Kikinis R.: The exploration of cross-sectional data with a virtual endoscope, in Satava RM, Morgan K, et al (eds): Interactive Technology and the New Medical Paradigm for Health Care. Washington, IOS Press , 1995, pp 221-230
4.
Napel S., Rubin GD, Jeffrey RB: STS-MIP: A new reconstruction technique for CT of the chest. J Comput Assist Tomogr17:832-838, 1993
5.
Johnson CD, Hara AK, Reed JE: Computed tomographic colonography (virtual colonoscopy): A new method for detecting colorectal neoplasms. Endoscopy29:454-461, 1997
6.
Robb RA: Visualization and analysis of biomedical images, in Proceedings of the 13th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, (vol 13). Piscataway, NJ, IEEE Service Center, 1991, pp 1048-1049
7.
Ackerman JM: The visible human project. Proc IEEE86:504-511, 1998
Beaulieu CF, Napel S., Daniel BL, et al: Detection of colonic polyps in a phantom model: Implications for virtual colonoscopy data acquisition. J Comput Assist Tomogr22:656-663, 1998
10.
Rex DK, Vining D., Kopecky KK An initial experience with screening for colon polyps using spiral CT with and without CT colography. Gastrointest Endosc50:309-313, 1999
11.
Luboldt W., Debatin JF: Virtual endoscopic colonography based on 3D NIRI. Abdom Imaging23:568-572, 1998
12.
Fleiter T., Merkle EM, Aschoff AJ, et al: Comparison of real-time virtual and fiberoptic bronchoscopy in patients with bronchial carcinoma: Opportunities and limitations. AJR Am J Roentgenol169:1591-1595, 1997
13.
Stenzl A., Kolle D., Eder R., et al: Virtual reality of the lower urinary tract in women. Int Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct10:248-253, 1999
14.
Fried MP, Moharir VM, Shinmoto H., et al: Virtual laryngoscopy. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol108:221-226, 1999
15.
Frankenthaler RP, Moharir V., Kikinis R., et al: Virtual otoscopy . Otolaryngol Clin North Am31:383-392, 1998
16.
Springer P. , Dessl A., Giacomuzzi SM, et al: Virtual computed tomography gastroscopy: A new technique. Endoscopy29:632-634, 1997
17.
Jones SB, Satava RM: Virtual endoscopy of the head and neck. Diagnosis using three-dimensional visualization and virtual representation. Stud Health Technol Inform29:152-156, 1996
18.
Barish M., SotoJ,Ferrucci JT: Magnetic resonance pancreatography. Endoscopy29:487-495, 1997
19.
Altobelli DE , Kikinis R., Mulliken JB, et al: Computer assisted three dimensional planning in craniofacial surgery. Plast Reconstr Surg92:576-585, 1993
20.
Rosen JM: Surgical simulation: Predicting the outcome of reconstructive surgery , in Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, (vol 13, pt 3). Piscataway, NJ, IEEE Service Center, 1991, pp 1268-1269
21.
Montgomery K. , Stephanides M., Cheng R., et al: Clinical application of VR for surgery . SPIE Electronic Imaging Engineering Reality of Virtual Reality, San Jose, CA, January 1998
22.
Montgomery K. : VERS: A virtual environment for reconstructive surgery planning. Engineering Reality of Virtual Reality, SPIE Electronic Imaging, San Jose, CA, February 1997
23.
Bill JS, Reuther JF, Dittmann W., et al: Stereolithography in oral and maxillofacial operation planning . Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg24:98-101, 1995
24.
Santler G., Karcher H., Gaggl A., et al: Stereolithography versus milled 3D models: Comparison of production method, indication and accuracy. Comput Aided Surg3:248-256, 1998
25.
Marescaux J. , Clement JM, Tassetti V., et al: Virtual reality applied to hepatic surgery simulation: The next revolution. Ann Surg228:627-634,1998
26.
Kelly PJ: Quantitative virtual reality enhances stereotactic neurosurgery. Bull Am Coll Surg80:13-20, 1995
27.
Auer LM, Auer DP: Virtual endoscopy for planning and simulation of minimally invasive neurosurgery . Neurosurgery43:529-537, 1998
28.
Messing EM, Zhang JB, Rubens DJ, et al: Intraoperative optimized inverse planning for prostate brachytherapy: Early experience. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys44:801-808, 1999
29.
Bucholz RD, Greco DJ: Image-guided surgical techniques for infections and trauma of the central nervous system. Neurosurg Clin North Am7:187-200, 1996
30.
Freysinger W., Gunkel AR, Thumfart WF: Image-guided endoscopic ENT surgery. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol254:343-346, 1997
31.
Jolesz FA: Image guided procedures and the operating room of the future. Radiology204:601-612, 1997
32.
Choi JC, Ingenito AC, Nanda RK, et al: Potential decreased morbidity of interstitial brachytherapy for gynecologic malignancies using laparoscopy: A pilot study. Gynecol Oncol73:210-215, 1999
33.
d'Amato TA, Galloway M., Szydlowski G., et al: Intraoperative brachytherapy following thoracoscopic wedge resection of stage I lung cancer. Chest114:1112-1115, 1998
34.
Dritschilo A., Grant EG, Harter KW, et al: Interstitial radiation therapy for hepatic metastases: Sonographic guidance for applicator placement. AJR Am J Roentgenol147:275-278, 1986
35.
Lee CK, Barrios BR, Bjarnason H.: Biliary tree malignancies: The University of Minnesota experience . J Surg Oncol65:298-305, 1997
Meltzer A.: Experimental laparoendoscopic surgery in combination with magnetic resonance imaging. Procedings of SMI/ CIMTT 11 th Annmual Scientific Meeting, Boston MA, p IR09, 1999.
38.
McFarland EG , Brink JA: Helical CT colonography (virtual colonoscopy): The challenge that exists between advancing technology and generalizability . AJR Am J Roentgenol173:549-559, 1999
