Consciousness as a Definition of Death: Its Appeal and Complexity

Bernat JL . On the definition and criterion of death. Ann Int Med 1981; 94: 389–394.

Bernat JL . Brain death occurs only with destruction of the cerebral hemispheres and the brain stem Arch Neurol 1992; 49(5):569–570.

Bernat JL . The definition, criterion and statute of death. Semin Neurol 1984; 4:45–51.

Bernat JL . How much of the brain must die in brain death. J Clin Ethics 1992; 3:21–28.

Bernat JL . Ethical issues in Neurology. In: Joynt RJ (ed). Clinical Neurology. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott Company; 1991:1–105.

Halery A Brody B . Brain death: Reconciling definitions, criteria and tests. Ann Int Med 1993; 119:519–525.

Bartlett ET Youngner SJ . Human death and the destruction of the neocortex. In: Zaner RM (ed). Death: Beyond the Whole-Brain Criteria. New York: Kluwer Academic Publisher; 1988:199–215.

Machado C . Death on neurological grounds J Neurosurg Sci 1994; 38: 209–222.

Machado C . A new definition of death based on the basic mechanisms of consciousness generation in human beings. In: Machado C (ed). Brain Death. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Brain Death. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, BV; 1995:57–66.

Beecher HK . A definition of irreversible coma: Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to examine the definition of brain death. JAMA 1968; 205:85–88.

Molinari GF . The NINCDS collaborative study of brain death: a historical perspective. In: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, NINCDS Monograph No. 24 NIH Publication No. 81–2226; 1980:1–32.

Walker AE . An appraisal of the criteria of cerebral death. A summary statement. A collaborative study. JAMA 1977; 237:982–986.

Guidelines for the Determination of Brain Death. Report of the Medical Consultants on the Diagnosis of Death to the President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. JAMA 1981; 246:2184–2186.

President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Behavioral Research: Defining Death. Medical Legal and Ethical Issues in the Determination of Death. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office; 1981.

Walker AE . (ed). Cerebral Death. Baltimore: Urban & Schawarzenberg; 1981.

Korein J . The problem of brain death: Development and history. In: Korein J (ed). Brain Death: Interrelated Medical and Social Issues. New York: Ann NY Acad Sci 1977; 315:19–38.

Ingvar DH Widen L . Brain death: Summary of a symposium. Lakartidningen 1972; 69:3804–3814.

Plum F Posner JB . The Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma. Philadelphia: FA Davis Company; 1980.

Black PMcL. Criteria of brain death: Review and comparison. Postgraduate Medicine 1975; 57:69–74.

Ouaknine G . Bedside procedures in the diagnosis of brain death. Resuscitation 1975; 4:159–177.

Machado C . Multimodality evoked potentials and electroretinogaphy in a test battery for an early diagnosis of brain death. J Neurosurg Sci 1993; 37:125–131.

Deliyannakis E Loannou F Davaroukas A . Brain-stem death with persistence of bioelectric activity of the cerebral hemispheres. Clin Electroencephalogr 1975; 6:75–79.

Ashwal S Schneider S . Failure of electroencephalography to diagnose brain death in comatose patients. Ann Neurol 1979; 6:512–517.

Chatrian G . Electrophysiological evaluation of brain death: A critical appraisal. In: Aminoff MJ (ed). Electrodiagnosis in Clinical Neurology. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1986:669–736.

Truog RD . Is it time to abandon brain death? Hasting Center Report 1997;27:29–37.

Howlett TA Keogh AM Perry L . Anterior and posterior pituitary function in brain-stem-dead donors: A possible role for hormonal replacement therapy. Transplantation 1989; 47:828–834.

Fiser DH Jimenez JF Wrape V . Diabetes insipidus in children with brain death. Crit Care Med 1987; 15:551–553.

Pallis C . Brainstem death. In: Braakman R (ed). Handbook of Clinical Neurology: Head Injury. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publisher BV 1990; 13 (57): 441–496.

Pallis C . Death-beyond the whole-brain criteria. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52:1023–1024.

Pallis C Macgillivray B . Brain death and the EEG. Lancet 1980; 2:1085–1086.

Pallis C Prior PF . Guidelines for the determination of death. Neurology 1983; 33:251–252.

Pallis C . Whole-brain reconsidered: Physiological facts and philosophy. J Med Ethics 1983; 9:32–37.

Conference of Royal Colleges and Faculties of the United Kingdom: Diagnosis of brain death. Lancet 1976; 2: 1069–1070.

Conference of Royal Colleges and their Faculties of the United Kingdom: Memorandum on the diagnosis of brain death. Br Med J 1979; 1:322.

Jennett B . Brain death (Editorial). Br J Anaesth 1981; 53:1111–1119.

Jennett B Hessett C . Brain death in Britain as reflected in renal donors. Br Med J 1981; 283:359–362.

Shewmon A . Recovery from “brain death”: A neurologist's apologia. Linacre Quarterly 1997:30–96.

Veatch RM . The definition of death: Ethical, philosophical, and policy confusion. In: Korein J (ed). Brain Death: Interrelated Medical and Social Issues. New York: Ann NY Acad Sci 1977; 315:307–317.

Veatch RM , (ed). Death, Dying, and the Biological Revolution. Our Last Responsibility. New Haven: Yale University Press; 1989.

Veatch RM . Brain death: Welcome definition or dangerous judgment? Hasting Center Report 1972; 11:10–13.

Truog RD Flacker JC . Rethinking brain death. Crit Care Med 1992; 20:1705–1713.

Cranford RE Smith DR . Consciousness: The most critical moral (constitutional) standard for human personhood. Am J Law Med 1990; 332:669–674.

Youngner SJ Bartlett ET . Human death and high technology: The failure of the whole-brain formulations Ann Intern Med 1983; 99:252–258.

Green MB Wikler D . Brain death and personal identity. Philosophy Public Affairs 1908; 2:105–133.

Kinney HC Samuels MA . Neuropathology of the persistent vegetative state: A review. J Neuropathol Experiment Neurol 1994; 53:548–558.

The Multi-Society Task Force on PVS. Medical aspects of the persistent vegetative state. N Engl J Med 1994; 330: 1499–1508.

Plum P . Coma and related global disturbances of the human conscious state. In: Peters A (ed). Cerebral Cortex, New York: Plenum Publish Corp 1991; 8: 359–425.

Steriade M . Arousal: Revisiting the reticular activating system Science 1996; 272:225–226.

Moruzzi G Magoun HW . Brain stem reticular formation and activation of the EEG. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1949; 1:455–473.

Destexhe A Contreras D Steriade M . Mechanisms underlying the synchronizing action of corticothalamic feedback through inhibition of thalamic relay cells Neurophysiol 1998; 79:999–1016.

Steriade M . Synchronized activities of coupled oscillators in the cerebral cortex and thalamus at different levels of vigilance Cereb Cortex 1997; 7:583–604.

Amzica F Neckelmann D Steriade M . Instrumental conditioning of fast (20- to 50-Hz) oscillations in corticothalamic networks Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94:1985–1989.

Contreras D Destexhe A Sejnowski TJ Steriade M . Control of spatiotemporal coherence of a thalamic oscillation by corticothalamic feedback Science 1996; 274:771–774.

Steriade M Contreras D Amzica F Timofeev I . Synchronization of fast (30–40 Hz) spontaneous oscillations in intrathalamic and thalamocortical networks J Neurosci 1996; 16:2788–2808.

Steriade M . Arousal: Revisiting the reticular activating system Science 1996; 272:225–226.

Steriade M Amzica F . Intracortical and corticothalamic coherency of fast spontaneous oscillations Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93:2533–2538.

Steriade M Amzica F Contreras D . Synchronization of fast (30–40 Hz) spontaneous cortical rhythms during brain activation. J Neurosci 1996, 16. 392–417.

Steriade M . Awakening the brain. Nature 1996:383:24–25.

Contreras D Steriade M . Cellular basis of EEG slow rhythms: A study of dynamic corticothalamic relationships J Neurosci 1995; 15:604–622.

Bogen JE . Some neurophysiological aspects of consciousness. Semin Neurol 1997; 17:95–103.

Kinsbourne M . The intralaminar thalamic nuclei: Subjectivity pumps or attention-action coordinators? Consciousness Cognition 1995; 4:167–171.

Villablanca J Salinas-Ceballos ME . Sleep-wakefulness, EEG and behavioral studies of chronic cats without the thalamus The “athalamic cat.” Arch ***Ital Biol 1972; 110:383–411.

Mountcastle VB . An organization principle for cerebral function: The unit module and the distributed system. In. Edelman GM Mouncastle VB (eds). The Mindful Brain. Cambridge: The MIT Press; 1978:7–50.

Goldman-Rakic PS . Topography of cognition: Parallel distributed networks in primate association cortex Ann Rev Neurosci 1988; 11:137–156.

Feinberg TE . The irreducible perspectives of consciousness Semin Neurol 1997; 17:85–93.

Singer W Gray CM . Visual feature integration and the temporal correlation hypothesis. Annu Rev Neurosci 1995; 18:555–586.

Schneider H Ballowitz L Schachinger H Hanefeld F Droszus JU . Anoxic encephalopathy with predominant involvement of basal ganglia, brain stem and spinal cord in the perinatal period: Report of seven newborns. Acta Neurpathol 1975; 32:287–298.

Ingvar DH Brun A Johansson L Sammuelsson SM . Survival after severe cerebral anoxia with destruction of the cerebral cortex: The apallic syndrome. In: Korein J (ed). Brain Death: Interrelated Medical and Social Issues. New York: Ann NY Acad Sci 1977; 315:184–214.

Kinney HC Korein J Panigraphy A Dikkes P Goode R . Neuropathologic findings in the brain of Karen Ann Quinlan: The role of the thalamus in the persistent vegetative state N Engl J Med 1994; 330:1469–1475.

Brierley JB Adams JH Graham DI Simpson JA . Neocortical death after cardiac arrest. A clinical, neurophysiological, and neuropathological report of two cases. Lancet 1972; 2: 560–565.

Villablanca JR . Independent forebrain and brainstem controls for arousal and sleep. Behav Brain Sci 1981; 4: 494–496.

Adams JH Graham DI Murray LS Scott G . Diffuse axonal injury due to nonmissile head injury in humans: An analysis of 45 cases. Ann Neurol 1982; 12:557–563.

Ginsberg MD Hedley-Whyte ET Richardson EP . Hypoxic-ischemic leukoencephalopathy in man Arch Neurol 1976; 33:5–14.

Carota A Pizzolato GP Gailloud P . A panencephalo-pathic type of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease with selective lesions of the thalamic nuclei in 2 Swiss patients Clin Neuropathol 1996; 15:125–134.

Squire LR Moore RY . Dorsal thalamic lesion in a noted case of human memory dysfunction. Ann Neurol 1979; 6:503–506.

Guberman A Stuss D . The syndrome of bilateral paramedian thalamic infarction. Neurology 1983; 33:540–546.

Shewmon DA . “Brain death”: A valid theme with invalid variations, blurred by semantic ambiguity. In: Angstwurm H de Paula I Carrasco (ed). Working Group on The Determination of Brain Death and its Relationship to Human Death: Vatican City: Pontificia Academia Scientiarum, 1992:23–51.

Shewmon DA . The metaphysics of brain death, persistent vegetative state, and dementia. The Thomist 1985; 49: 24–80.

Villablanca JR Burgess JW Olmstead CE Levine MS . Recovery of function after neonatal or adult hemispherecto-my in cats: I-III. Behav. Brain Res 1986; 19:205–226.

Brodai A , (ed). Neurological Anatomy in Relation to Clinical Medicine. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1981:394–447.

Shewmon DA Holmes GL . Brainstem plasticity in congenitally decerebrated children Brain Devel 1990; 12:664.

Hassler R Dalle Ore G Bricolo OA . Behavioral and EEG arousal induced by stimulation of unspecific projection systems in a patient with post-traumatic apallic syndrome. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1969; 27:306–310.

Katayama Y Tsubokawa T Yamamoto T . Characterization of brain activity with deep brain stimulation in patients in a persistent vegetative state: Pain-related late positive component of cerebral evoked potential Pace 1991; 14:116–121.

Sturm V Kühner A Schmitt HP Assmus H Stock G . Chronic electrical stimulation of the thalamic unspecific activating system in a patient with coma due to midbrain and upper brain stem infarction Acta Neurochirurgica 1979; 47:235–244.

Cohadon F Richer E . Stimulation cérébrale profonde chez des patients en état végétatif post-traumatique. 25 observations Neurochirurgie 1993; 39:281–292.

Austin GM Grant FC . Physiologic observations following total hemispherectomy in man. Surgery 1958; 38:239–258.

Veatch RM . Defining death: The role of brain function JAMA 1979; 242:2001–2002.

Ott B . Defining and redefining death Am J Crit Care 1995; 4:476–480.

Singer P . Is the sanctity of life terminally ***iII? In: Machado C (ed). Brain Death. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Brain Death. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science BV; 1995:231–244.

Botkin JR Post SG . Confusion in the determination of death: Distinguishing philosophy from physiology Perspect Biol Med 1992; 36:129–138.

Korein J . Ontogenesis of the brain in the human organism: Definitions of ***life and death of the human being and person. In: Edwards RB (ed). Advances in Bioethics. New York: JAI Press Inc 1997; 2:1–74.

Varela FJ . Principles of Biological Autonomy. New York: North Holland, 1979.

Swedish Committee on Defining Death: The concept of death. Summary. Stockholm: Swedish Ministry of Health and Social Affairs; 1985.

Shewmon AD . Chronic “brain death”: Meta-analysis and conceptual consequences Neurology 1998; 51:1538–1545.

García OD Machado C Roman JM . Heart rate variability in coma and brain death. In: Machado C (ed). Brain Death. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Brain Death. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science BV, 1995:191–200.

Telles S Nagarathna R Nagendra HR . Autonomic changes during “OM” meditation Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 1995; 39:418–420.

Schou M . Treating recurrent affective disorders during and after pregnancy What can be taken safely? Drug Saf 1998; 18:143–152.

Machado C Garcia A . Guidelines for the determination of brain death. In: Machado C (ed). Brain Death. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Brain Death. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science BV, 1995:75–80.

Machado C . Multimodality evoked potentials and electroretinogaphy in a test battery for an early diagnosis of brain death. J. Neurosurg Sci 1993; 37:125–131.