Recent developments in servant leadership theory exposed a gap in the research literature regarding traits that are important to servant leaders. Our study partially addresses this gap by examining the trait of core self-evaluations and its relationship to servant leadership and leader effectiveness. The results of our study indicate that leader’s core self-evaluations are positively related to followers’ perceptions of servant leadership and leader effectiveness, and the relationship between leaders’ core self-evaluations and leader effectiveness is fully mediated by servant leadership. The results add support to current servant leadership theory by confirming the role that core self-evaluations play in servant leader emergence, and extend the research on core self-evaluations as it relates to leader performance.
AguinisH.GottfredsonK.CulpepperA. (2013). Best-practice recommendations for estimating cross-level interaction effects using multilevel modeling. Journal of Management, 39, 1490-1528. doi:10.1177/0149206313478188
2.
ArthurW.DayD. V. (1994). Development of a short form for the Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices test. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54, 394-403.
3.
AveyJ.LuthansF.YoussefC. (2010). The additive value of positive psychological capital in predicting work attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Management, 36, 430-452.
4.
BadenD. (2014). Look on the bright side: A comparison of positive and negative role models in business ethics education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 13, 154-170.
5.
BarbutoJ. E.WheelerD. W. (2006). Scale development and construct clarification of servant leadership. Group & Organization Management, 31, 300-326.
6.
BertuaC.AndersonN.SalgadoJ. F. (2005). The predictive validity of cognitive ability tests: A UK meta-analysis. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 387-409.
7.
BorsD. A.StokesT. L. (1998). Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices: Norms for first-year university students and the development of a short form. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58, 382-398.
8.
CarpenterP. A.JustM. A.ShellP. (1990). What one intelligence test measures: A theoretical account of the processing in the raven progressive matrices test. Psychological Review, 97, 404-431.
9.
ChenZ.ZhuJ.ZhouM. (2015). How does a servant leader fuel the service fire? A multilevel model of servant leadership, individual self identity, group competition climate, and customer service performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 511-521.
10.
CherryJ.FraedrichJ. (2000). An empirical investigation of locus of control and the structure of moral reasoning: Examining the ethical decision-making processes of sales managers. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, 20, 173-188.
11.
ChoudharyA.AkhtarS.ZaheerA. (2013). Impact of transformational and servant leadership on organizational performance: A comparative analysis. Journal of Business Ethics, 116, 433-440. doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1470-8
12.
ColquittJ. A.Zapata-PhelanC. P. (2007). Trends in theory building and theory testing: A five-decade study of the academy of management journal. Academy of Management Journal, 50, 1281-1303.
13.
DavisonM. L.KwakN.SeoY. S.ChoiJ. (2002). Using hierarchical linear models to examine moderator effects: Person-by-organization interactions. Organizational Research Methods, 5, 231-254. doi:10.1177/1094428102005003003
14.
DayE. A.ArthurGettmanD. (2001). Knowledge structures and the acquisition of a complex skill. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1022-1033.
15.
DennisR. S.BocarneaM. (2005). Development of the servant leadership instrument. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 26, 600-615.
16.
EhrhartM. G. (2004). Leadership and procedural justice climate as antecedents of unit-level organizational citizenship behavior. Personnel Psychology, 57, 61-94.
17.
ErezA.JudgeT. (2001). Relationship of core self-evaluations to goal setting, motivation, and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 1270-1279.
18.
FullerJ.PattersonC. P.HesterK.StringerD. Y. (1996). A quantitative review of research on charismatic leadership. Psychological Reports, 78, 271-287.
GerstnerC. R.DayD. V. (1997). Meta-Analytic review of leader–member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 827-844.
21.
GreenleafR. K. (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. New York, NY: Paulist Press.
22.
HanC.HongS. (2013). Trajectories of volunteering and self-esteem in later life: Does wealth matter?Research on Aging, 35, 571-590.
23.
HoffmanB. J.WoehrD. J.Maldagen-YoungjohnR.LyonsB. D. (2011). Great man or great myth? A quantitative review of the relationship between individual differences and leader effectiveness. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84, 347-381.
24.
HofmannD. A.GriffinM. A.GavinM. B. (2000). The application of hierarchical linear modeling to organizational research. In KleinK. J.KozlowskiS. W. J. (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations (pp. 467-511). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
25.
HuJ.WangZ.LidenR. C.SunJ. (2012). The influence of leader core self-evaluation on follower reports of transformational leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 23, 860-868.
26.
HunterE. M.NeubertM. J.PerryS. J.WittL. A.PenneyL. A.WeinbergerE. (2013). Servant leaders inspire servant followers: Antecedents and outcomes for employees and the organization. Leadership Quarterly, 24, 316-331.
27.
JangC. (2012). The effect of personality traits on public service motivation: Evidence from Taiwan. Social Behavior and Personality, 40, 725-734.
28.
JosephE. E.WinstonB. E. (2005). A correlation of servant leadership, leader trust, and organizational trust. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 26, 6-22.
29.
JudgeT. A. (2009). Core self-evaluations and work success. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 58-62.
30.
JudgeT. A.BonoJ. E. (2001). Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 80-92.
31.
JudgeT. A.BonoJ. E.IliesR.GerhardtM. W. (2002). Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 765-780.
32.
JudgeT. A.ErezA.BonoJ. E. (1998). The power of being positive: The relation between positive self-concept and job performance. Human Performance, 11, 167-187.
33.
JudgeT. A.ErezA.BonoJ. E.ThoresenC. (2003). The core self-evaluations scale: Development of a measure. Personnel Psychology, 56, 303-331.
34.
JudgeT. A.HellerD.KlingerR. (2008). The dispositional sources of job satisfaction: A comparative test. Applied Psychology, 57, 361-372. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00318.x
35.
JudgeT. A.Kammeyer-MuellerJ. D. (2011). Implications of core self-evaluations for a changing organizational context. Human Resource Management Review, 21, 331-341.
36.
JudgeT. A.PiccoloR. F.KosalkaT. (2009). The bright and dark sides of leader traits: A review and theoretical extension of the leader trait paradigm. Leadership Quarterly, 20, 855-875.
37.
KacmarK.CollinsB.HarrisK.JudgeT. (2009). Core self-evaluations and job performance: The role of the perceived work environment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 1572-1580.
38.
KaplanS.BradleyJ. C.LuchmanJ. N.HaynesD. (2009). On the role of positive and negative affectivity in job performance: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 162-176.
39.
KesslerS. R.RadosevichD. J.ChoJ.KimS. K. (2008). An examination of the antecedents of motivation to lead. International Journal of Business Research, 8, 113-119.
40.
KlineR. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
41.
KohlbergL. (1976). Moral stages and moralization: The cognitive-developmental approach. In LickonaT. (Ed.), Moral development and behavior: Theory, research, and social issues (pp. 31-53). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
42.
LidenR. C.PanaccioA.MeuserJ. D.HuJ.WayneS. J. (2014). Servant leadership: Antecedents, processes, and outcomes. In DayD. V. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of leadership and organizations (pp. 357-379). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
43.
LidenR. C.WayneS. J.LiaoC.MeuserJ. D. (2014). Servant leadership and serving culture: Influence on individual and unit performance. Academy of Management Journal, 57, 1434-1452.
44.
LidenR. C.WayneS. J.ZhaoH.HendersonD. (2008). Servant leadership: Development of a multidimensional measure and multi-level assessment. Leadership Quarterly, 19, 161-177.
45.
LordR. G.de VaderC. L.AlligerG. M. (1986). A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 402-410.
46.
LoweK. B.KroeckK.SivasubramaniamN. (1996). Effectiveness correlates of transformation and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic review of the MLQ literature. Leadership Quarterly, 7, 385-425.
47.
LuthansF.AvolioB. J.AveyJ. B.NormanS. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60, 541-572.
48.
McKayP. F.DoverspikeD.Bowen-HiltonD.MartinQ. D. (2002). Stereotype threat effects on the raven advanced progressive matrices scores of African Americans. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 767-787.
49.
MellorD.HayashiY.FirthL.StokesM.ChambersS.CumminsR. (2008). Volunteering and well-being: Do self-esteem, optimism, and perceived control mediate the relationship?Journal of Social Service Research, 34(4), 61-70.
50.
MidlarskyE.JonesS. F.CorleyR. P. (2005). Personality correlates of heroic rescue during the holocaust. Journal of Personality, 73, 907-934.
51.
MountM. K. (1984). Psychometric properties of subordinate ratings of managerial performance. Personnel Psychology, 37, 687-702.
52.
NeubertM. J.KacmarK. M.CarlsonD. S.ChonkL. B.RobertsJ. A. (2008). Regulatory focus as a mediator of the influence of initiating structure and servant leadership on employee behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 1220-1233.
53.
OwensB. P.HekmanD. R. (2012). Modeling how to grow: An inductive examination of humble leader behaviors, contingencies, and outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 55, 787-818.
54.
ParrisD.PeacheyJ. (2013). A systematic literature review of servant leadership theory in organizational contexts. Journal of Business Ethics, 113, 377-393. doi:10.1007/s10551-012-1322-6
55.
PetersonS. J.GalvinB. M.LangeD. (2012). CEO servant leadership: Exploring executive characteristics and firm performance. Personnel Psychology, 65, 565-596.
56.
PiccoloR. F.BonoJ. E.HeinitzK.RowoldJ.DuehrE.JudgeT. A. (2012). The relative impact of complementary leader behaviors: Which matter most?Leadership Quarterly, 23, 567-581.
57.
RaudenbushS. W.BrykA. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
58.
RaudenbushS. W.BrykA. S.CongdonR. (2011). HLM 7 for windows [Computer software]. Skokie, IL: Scientific Software International.
59.
RavenJ. (2000). The raven’s progressive matrices: Change and stability over culture and time. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 1-48.
ReedL. L.Vidaver-CohenD.ColwellS. R. (2011). A new scale to measure executive servant leadership: Development, analysis, and implications for research. Journal of Business Ethics, 101, 415-434.
62.
ResickC. J.WhitmanD. S.WeingardenS. M.HillerN. J. (2009). The bright-side and the dark-side of CEO personality: Examining core self-evaluations, narcissism, transformational leadership, and strategic influence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 1365-1381.
63.
RussellR. F.StoneA. G. (2002). A review of servant leadership attributes: Developing a practical model. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 23, 145-157.
64.
SalvaggioA.SchneiderB.NishiiL.MayerD.RameshA.LyonJ. (2007). Manager personality, manager service quality orientation, and service climate: Test of a model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1741-1750.
65.
SearleT. P.BarbutoJ. E. (2013). A multilevel framework: Expanding and bridging micro and macro levels of positive behavior with leadership. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 20, 274-286.
66.
SearsG. J.HackettR. D. (2011). The influence of role definition and affect in LMX: A process perspective on the personality–LMX relationship. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84, 544-564.
67.
SendjayaS.SarrosJ. C. (2002). Servant leadership: Its origin, development, and application in organizations. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 9, 57-64.
68.
SendjayaS.SarrosJ. C.SantoraJ. C. (2008). Defining and measuring servant leadership behavior in organizations. Journal of Management Studies, 45, 402-424.
69.
SpearsL. (1995). Servant leadership and the Greenleaf legacy. In SpearsL. C. (Ed.), Reflections on leadership. New York, NY: John Wiley.
70.
StumppT.HülshegerU.MuckP.MaierG. (2009). Expanding the link between core self-evaluations and affective job attitudes. European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology, 18, 148-166.
71.
TangT. L.IbrahimA. S. (1998). Antecedents of organizational citizenship behavior revisited: Public personnel in the United States and in the Middle East. Public Personnel Management, 27, 529-550.
72.
TornowW. W.PintoP. R. (1976). The development of a managerial job taxonomy: A system for describing, classifying, and evaluating executive positions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 410-418.
73.
van DierendonckD. (2011). Servant leadership: A review and synthesis. Journal of Management, 37, 1228-1261.
74.
van DierendonckD.NuijtenI. (2011). The servant leadership survey: Development and validation of a multi-dimensional measure. Journal of Business and Psychology, 26, 249-267.
75.
WalumbwaF. O.HartnellC. A.OkeA. (2010). Servant leadership, procedural justice climate, service climate, employee attitudes, and organizational citizenship behavior: A cross-level investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 517-529.
76.
WangZ.SunJ.ZhangR. (2012). Effect of leader core self-evaluation on follower organizational citizenship behavior: The role of ethical leadership and collectivistic orientation. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 44, 1231-1243.
77.
WashingtonR. R.SuttonC. D.FeildH. S. (2006). Individual differences in servant leadership: The roles of values and personality. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 27, 700-716.
78.
WhettenD. A.CameronK. S. (2007). Developing management skills. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
79.
XuX.YuF.ShiJ. (2011). Ethical leadership and leaders’ personalities. Social Behavior and Personality, 39, 361-368. doi:10.2224/sbp.2011.39.3.361
