The purpose of this study is to examine the degree to which police arrest is influenced by an offenders’ level of verbal intelligence. Concomitantly, we examine whether the level of concentrated disadvantage of the neighborhood where the offender resides moderates the effect of verbal intelligence on arrest. To accomplish this, we employed the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) to examine the extent to which persistent delinquent youths’ self-reported arrests are significantly related to their verbal IQ scores. Furthermore, we also analyzed the interaction of verbal IQ scores and neighborhood disadvantage net of an array of theoretically relevant control variables.
AiC.NortonE. C. (2003). Interaction terms in logit and probit models. Economics Letters, 80, 123–129.
2.
BakerP.KeckC.MottF.QuinlanS. (1993). NLSY child handbook. Columbus, OH: Center for Human Resource Research.
3.
BayleyD.MendelsohnH. (1969). Minorities and the police: Confrontation in America. New York, NY: Free Press.
4.
BeaverK. (2010). The effects of genetics, the environment, and low self-control on perceived maternal and paternal socialization: Results from a longitudinal sample of twins. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 27, 85–105.
5.
BeaverK.DeLisiM.MearsD.StewartE. (2009). Low self-control and contact with the criminal justice system in a nationally representative sample of males. Justice Quarterly, 26, 695–715.
6.
BeaverK.DeLisiM.VaughnM.BoutwellB. (2008). The relationship between self- control and language: Evidence of a shared etiological pathway. Criminology, 46, 939–970.
7.
BeaverK.GibsonC.DeLisiM.VaughnM.WrightJ. (2011). The interaction between neighborhood disadvantage and genetic factors in the prediction of antisocial outcomes. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10, 25–40.
8.
BeaverK.WrightJ. (2007). The stability of low self-control from kindergarten through first grade. Journal of Crime & Justice, 30, 63–86.
9.
BeaverK.WrightJ.DeLisiM. (2008). Delinquent peer group formation: Evidence of a gene x environment correlation. The Journal of genetic psychology, 169, 227–244.
10.
BlackD. (1976). The behavior of law. New York, NY: Academic Press.
11.
ClevelandH. (2003). Disadvantaged neighborhoods and adolescent aggression: Behavioral genetic evidence of contextual effects. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 13, 211–238.
12.
CullenF.GendreauP.JarjouraG.WrightJ. (1997). Crime and the bell curve: Lessons from intelligent criminology. Crime & Delinquency, 43, 387–411.
13.
DionneG. (2005). Language development and aggressive behavior. In TremblayR.HartupW.ArcherJ. (Eds.), Developmental origins of aggression (pp. 330–352). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
14.
DugdaleR. (1877). “The Jukes”: A study in crime, pauperism, disease, and heredity: also further studies of criminals. New York, NY: G.P. Putnam’s Sons.
15.
GallagherT. (1999). Interrelationships among children’s language, behavior, and emotional problems. Topics in Language Disorders, 19, 1–15.
16.
GoddardH. (1914). Feeble-mindedness. New York: Macmillan.
17.
GoldsteinJ. (1960). Police discretion not to invoke the criminal process: Low-visibility decisions in the administration of justice. Yale Law Journal, 69(4), 543–594.
18.
GottfredsonM.HirschiT. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
19.
HarrisK.FloreyF.TaborJ.BearmanP.JonesJ.UdryJ. (2003). The national longitudinal study of adolescent health: Research design. Retrieved June 29, 2009, fromhttp://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design
20.
HerrnsteinR.MurrayC. (1994). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York, NY: Free Press.
21.
HirschiT. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
22.
HirschiT.HindelangM. (1977). Intelligence and delinquency: A revisionist review. American Sociological Review, 42, 571–587.
23.
KlingerD. (1997). Negotiating order in patrol work: An ecological theory of police response to deviance. Criminology, 35, 277–306.
24.
LuriaA. (1961). The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. New York, NY: Basic Books.
25.
LuriaA.HomskayaE. (1964). Disturbance in the regulative role of speech with frontal lobe lesions. In WarrenJ. M.AkertK. (Eds.), The frontal granular cortex and behavior (pp. 353–371). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
26.
LynamD.MoffittT.Stouthamer-LoeberM. (1993). Explaining the relation between IQ and delinquency: Class, race, test motivation, school failure, or self-control?Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 187–196.
27.
McCluskeyJ.ReisigM.MastrofskiS.TerrillW. (1999). Nasty as t hey wanna be? An investigation of suspect aggression during police encounters. Presented at the 51st Annual Meeting of the American Society of Criminology, November. Toronto, Canada.
28.
McGloinJ.PrattT. (2003). Cognitive ability and delinquent behavior among inner-city youth: A life-course analysis of main, mediating, and interaction effects. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, 253–271.
29.
McGloinJ.PrattT.MaahsJ. (2004). Rethinking the IQ-delinquency relationship: A longitudinal analysis of multiple theoretical models. Justice Quarterly, 21, 603–635.
30.
MoffittT. (1990). Juvenile delinquency and attention deficit disorder: Boys’ developmental trajectories from age 3 to age 15. Child Development, 61, 893–910.
31.
MoffittT.CaspiA.SilvaP.Stouthamer-LoeberM. (1995). Individual differences in personality and intelligence are linked to crime: Cross-context evidence from nations, neighborhoods, genders, races, and age-cohorts. In HaganJ. (Ed.), Current perspectives on aging and the life cycle. Vol. 4. Delinquency and disrepute in the life course. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
32.
MoffittT.SilvaP. (1988). IQ and delinquency: A direct test of the differential detection hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 330–333.
33.
NeisserU.BoodooG.BouchardT.JrBoykinA.BrodyN.CeciS.
…
HalpernD. (1996). Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51, 77–101.
34.
NiederhofferA. (1967). Behind the shield: The police in urban society. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
35.
NisbettR.AronsonJ.BlairC.DickensW.FlynnJ.HalpernD.TurkheimerE. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. The American psychologist, 67, 130–59.
36.
PaternosterR.BrameR.MazerolleP.PiqueroA. (1998). Using the correct statistical test for the equality of regression coefficients. Criminology, 36, 859–866.
37.
PerroneD.SullivanC.PrattT.MargaryanS. (2004). Parental efficacy, self-control, and delinquency: A test of a general theory of crime on a nationally representative sample of youth. International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology, 48, 298–312.
38.
PiliavinI.BriarS. (1964). Police encounters with juveniles. American Journal of Sociology, 70, 206–214.
39.
SampsonR.RaudenbushS.EarlsF. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918–924.
40.
ScarrS.McCartneyK. (1983). How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype environment effects. Child Development, 54, 424–435.
41.
ShermanL. (1990). Police crackdowns: Initial and residual deterrence. In TonryM.MorrisN. (Eds.), Crime And Justice: A review of research, Vol. 12, (pp. 1–48). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
42.
SkolnickJ. (1966). Justice without trial. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
43.
StarkR. (1975). Social problems. New York, NY: Random House.
44.
TarnopolL. (1970). Delinquency and minimal brain dysfunction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 3, 200–208.
45.
TerrillW.ReisigM. (2003). Neighborhood context and police use of force. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, 291–321.
46.
TurnerM.HartmanJ.BishopD. (2007). The effects of prenatal problems, family functioning, and neighborhood disadvantage in predicting life-course-persistent offending. Criminal Justice And Behavior, 34, 1241–1261.
47.
UdryJ. (1998). The national longitudinal sample of adolescent health. Chapel Hill, NC: Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina.
48.
UdryJ. (2003). The national longitudinal study of adolescent health (Add Health), Waves I and II, 1994–1996; Wave III, 2001–2002 [Machine-readable data file and docu-mentation]. Chapel Hill, NC: Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina.
49.
VanceB.WestR.KutsickK. (1989). Prediction of wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence iq scores for preschool children using the peabody picture vocabulary test-r and the expressive one word picture vocabulary test. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 642–644.
50.
WardD.TittleC. (1994). IQ and delinquency: A test of two competing explanations. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 10, 189–212.
51.
WarnerB.CoomerB. (2003). Neighborhood drug arrest rates: Are they a meaningful indicator of drug activity? A research note. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, 123–138.
52.
WerthmanC.PiliavinI. (1967). Gang members and the police. In BorduaD. (Ed.), The police: Six sociological essays (pp. 56–98). New York, NY: John Wiley.
53.
WhiteH. (1980). A heteroskedasticity-consistent covariance matrix estimator and a direct test for heteroskedasticity. Econometrica, 48, 817–838.
54.
WilsonJ.HerrnsteinR. (1985). Crime and human nature. New York, NY: Simons and Schuster.
55.
WordenR. (1989). Situational and attitudinal explanations of police behavior: A theoretical reappraisal and empirical assessment. Law Society Review, 23, 667–711.
