In the years after World War II, the University of Chicago (U of C) enjoyed a position as a leader in higher education with the ability to help provide for national economic growth and global security through professional education and scientific research. It also faced a dramatically changing set of neighborhood conditions that threatened its leadership status. University administrators pursued an ambitious agenda of redevelopment and neighborhood management in South East Chicago in order to fight a wave of racial transition. In doing so, the university formed and led a coalition of top urban universities that shared real estate practices and helped create federal policy that made universities integral parts of urban renewal initiatives in the 1960s. This effort to create, manage, and redevelop housing, including student housing, provoked strident opposition from the student body and set the emerging New Left against the university in an early salvo of the student movement.
John Hall Fish, Black Power/White Control: The Struggle of the Woodlawn Organization in Chicago (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973), 71-73. A municipal bond proposal that would have helped fund renewal projects such as the South Campus plan and obviated TWO opposition failed in the spring of 1962, partly forcing Daley and Levi to broker the compromise with the Woodlawn community. Julian Levi Oral History, 88-92. University of Chicago Special Collections; Amanda Seligman, Block by Block: Neighborhoods and Public Policy on Chicago’s West Side (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 86; and Roger Biles, Richard J. Daley: Politics, Race, and the Governing of Chicago (Dekalb, IL: Northern Illinois University, 1995).
2.
University of California president Clark Kerr wrote the most prominent description of the role of the postwar university in promoting economic and cultural development and its increasingly important role in the United States and the world. The U of C addressed their particular contributions in a profile for the Ford Foundation in 1965. Clark Kerr, The Uses of the University, 4th ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963); Reprint, 1995. ‘‘A Profile of the University of Chicago,’’ folders 1-3, box 273, Beadle Administration Papers, University of Chicago Special Collections (hereafter BAP UCSC).
3.
On founding support for the university, see Robin Bachin, Building the South Side: Urban Space and Civic Culture in Chicago, 1890-1919 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 34-35, 42.
4.
Levi noted that the fear of racial transition was as much a factor as actual demographic change, asserting that parents would ‘‘applaud the ‘noble experiment’ [of an interracial community] while at the same time they caution their daughters not to go to the U of C lest they be raped on the streets.’’ Quoted in Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960, 2nd ed. (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 168.
5.
John Henry Newman, The Idea of a University (New York, NY: Longmans, Green & Co., 1923).
6.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, xiv.
7.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto. Peter Rossi and Robert Dentler, The Politics of Urban Renewal: The Chicago Findings (New York, NY: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1961), 156-90. Writing from a political science perspective emphasizing liberal pluralism initiated by Robert Dahl and taken up by Nelson Polsby, the authors minimize the use of power by elite actors in metropolitan redevelopment. Levi tried to prevent the publication of Rossi and Dentler’s work because it cast the university and the SECC in a bad light.
8.
In this, I offer an alternative to the existing emphasis on suburbanizing, antiurban, or utopian characterizations of universities. Paul V. Turner, Campus: An American Planning Tradition (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984); Stefan Muthesius, The Postwar University: Utopianist Campus and College (London, UK: Yale University Press, 2000); and Margaret Pugh O’Mara, Cities of Knowledge: Cold War Science and the Search for the Next Silicon Valley (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).
9.
Historians such as Arnold Hirsch and Thomas Sugrue first gave scrutiny to grassroots whites’ roles in limiting policy choices shaping metropolitan segregation in the north, while Kenneth Jackson led a wave of suburban historians in illustrating the role of the state in promoting urban disinvestment and suburban expansion. More recently, Robert Self has illustrated the interaction between policy elites and local grassroots groups, both black and white. Margaret O’Mara’s work remains the key historical work exploring universities’ pursuit of economic and metropolitan development. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto. Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit, 2nd ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003); Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1985); and O’Mara, Cities of Knowledge.
10.
These groups and alliances are not exclusive-students might ally with administrators, and faculty might help develop urban policy. However, the mid-century university was a place where a wide range of these groups participated in and reacted to these processes.
11.
I borrow this term from Samuel Zipp, Manhattan Projects: The Rise and Fall of Urban Renewal in Cold War New York (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2010).
12.
Lawrence Kimpton served as the president of the SECC and Julian Levi as the Executive Director. Arnold Hirsch and Robin Bachin have also illustrated some of the university’s efforts to create a segregated campus area before the war through homeowner associations and restrictive covenants. Julia Abrahamson, A Neighborhood Finds Itself (New York, NY: Harper & Brothers, 1959), quoted in Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 144-45; Bachin, Building the South Side, 60; and Bonnie Marantz, ‘‘The Political Effectiveness of the Hyde Park-Kenwood Community Conference’’ (MA thesis, University of Chicago, 1967).
13.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 142. For an example of another such citizen group in St. Louis, see Joseph Heathcott, ‘‘The City Quietly Remade: National Programs and Local Agendas in the Movement to Clear the Slums, 1942-1952,’’ Journal of Urban History 34, no. 2 (2008): 233.
14.
Robin Bachin, Building the South Side: Urban Culture and Civic Space in Chicago, 1890-1919 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 58-61. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 144-46. Levi regularly invoked public support and a grassroots constituency even though the SECC was a thoroughly top-down organization. See, for example, letter from Levi to Mendel Flanders August 19, 1953, folder 5, box 230, Kimpton Administration Papers (hereafter KAP) UCSC. In one instance, staff reported that an SECC board member complained that ‘‘she feels she is being ‘used’ and doesn’t know what really happens in the Commission. She feels that at the decision-making level you and Mr. Kimpton do this without consultation or direction from the Executive Committee.’’ Sarah Wexler to Julian Levi. March 31, 1955, folder 6, box 230, KAP UCSC. Levi expressed disdain and ridicule for the staff and efforts of the HPKCC, while also criticizing university faculty whose planning work in the Hyde Park neighborhood he considered overly idealistic and esoteric.
15.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 152.
16.
‘‘Memorandum-Planning Objective’’ (n.d.), folder 6, box 234, KAP UCSC.
17.
The depicted construction part of this plan was never carried out, though the redevelopment corporation did acquire the land and demolish the buildings.
18.
Particularly on the proposed treatment of the Midway, the university promoted an ideal of historical continuity between their plans and those of renowned designers from Olmsted to Burnham to Saarinen. Trustee Walter Paepcke of the Container Corporation of America specifically advocated for Saarinen’s hire-in part, the two men shared a vision of a modern industrial future in which automotive transportation shaped and improved urban life and culture.
19.
See, for example Turner, Campus, 249-306; Muthesius, The Postwar University; and Walter McQuade, ‘‘College Architecture: The Economics and Aesthetics,’’ Fortune (May 1963): 148-50.
20.
Rather than research parks deriving their form from college campuses, postwar universities were often designed with the innovative form of new corporate and research campuses in mind. ‘‘The Maturing Modern,’’ TIME (July 2, 1956). Scott Knowles and Stuart Leslie, ‘‘‘‘Industrial Versailles:’’ Eero Saarinen’s Corporate Campuses for GM, IBM, and AT&T,’’ Isis 92, no. 1 (2001); Louise Mozingo, ‘‘The Corporate Estate in the USA, 1954-64: ‘Thoroughly Modern in Concept, But...Down to Earth and Rugged’,’’ Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes 11 (January-March 2000): 25-56; and Alan Plattus, ‘‘Campus Plans,’’ in Eero Saarinen: Shaping the Future, ed. Eeva-Liisa Pelkonen and Donald Albrecht (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006).
21.
In the end, much of Saarinen’s plan was carried out, including two of his own buildings, but full implementation (including the expressway) was precluded forestalled? by his death in 1961. See also Eero Saarinen, ‘‘Campus Planning: The Unique World of the University,’’ Architectural Record (November 1960): 123-30.
22.
William Cronon , Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, NY: W.W. Norton , 1991).
23.
Edward Banfield and James Wilson, City Politics (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1963); Milton Rakove, Don’t Make No Waves, Don’t Back No Losers: An Insider’s Analysis of the Daley Machine (Bloomington, IN: University of Indiana Press, 1975); and Milton Rakove, We Don’t Want Nobody Nobody Sent: An Oral History of the Daley Years (Bloomington, IN: University of Indiana Press, 1979).
24.
Levi interview, 27.
25.
‘‘A Program for the University of Chicago,’’ folder 1, box 98, KAP UCSC. $10.8 million is roughly equivalent to $87.2 million in inflation-adjusted, 2009 dollars. CPI Inflation Calculator http://data.bls.gov/ cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl (accessed January 7, 2010).
26.
Ibid.
27.
Historian and Dean of the College John Boyer attributes postwar enrollment declines to Robert Maynard Hutchins’ creation of a junior college, which admitted students normally in their last two years of secondary school. This innovation alienated educators, including alumni, who had been part of the university’s metro Chicago recruiting network. Boyer, ‘‘The Kind of University That We Desire to Become,’’ 53-54.
28.
‘‘$100,000 Given to Renovate 3 Neighborhoods,’’ Chicago Daily Tribune (October 22, 1953): C2. Total inflates to approximately $803,000 in 2009 dollars. CPI Inflation Calculator http://data.bls.gov (accessed November 7, 2009).
29.
Ryerson to Thomas Stephens, July 13, 1954, folder 1, box 231, KAP UCSC.
30.
‘‘Redeclaration of Independence.’’LIFE (November 17, 1952).
31.
Clarence Randall, chairman of Inland Steel and university trustee, served as a special economic advisor to President Eisenhower with an office in the Old Executive Office Building. Julian Levi interview, 45. University Archives, UCSC. Memo from Clarence Randall to Edward Ryerson, July 19, 1954, box 231, folder 1, KAP. Edward Ryerson to Clarence Randall, July 19, 1954, folder 1, box 231, KAP. ‘‘Agreement between the University of Chicago . . .,’’ folder 2, box 67, KAP. UCSC. $120.4 million in 2009 dollars. CPI Inflation Calculator (accessed November 7, 2009).
32.
The university had had a cool relationship with Daley’s predecessor, Martin Kennelly. Levi interview, 24.
33.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 152.
34.
Ernest Burgess and Charles Newcomb, eds. Census Data of the City of Chicago 1920 ( Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1931), v.
35.
On the history of Title I, see Hilary Ballon and Kenneth Jackson, Robert Moses and the Modern City: The Transformation of New York ( New York, Ny: W. W. Norton, 2007 ).
36.
Levi interview, 90.
37.
The city received a $198,680 planning grant from the Housing and Home Finance Agency (HHFA) through the university’s connections. The city subcontracted urban renewal plan development to the university planning office for that sum. Contract Document No. 70-56-56, Contract No. 17732. ‘‘Agreement Between the University of Chicago through the Chicago Community Conservation Board.’’ January 12, 1956, folder 2, box 67, KAP UCSC.
38.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 161-70. The U of C helped mitigate criticism from the nascent preservation movement by intervening with Zeckendorf to save Frank Lloyd Wright’s Robie House from demolition. Zeckendorf’s firm, Webb & Knapp, used the residence as its local office during Hyde Park A & B redevelopment. While the number of rental units, total population, and African American population declined after the commencement of renewal activities in the late 1950s, throughout the postwar period the number of owner-occupied units in Hyde Park never decreased. Data from United States Census, 1940-1980.
39.
Numerous Maroon articles gave significant coverage to the university’s efforts, ‘‘LAK helped improve Hyde Park Housing,’’ Chicago Maroon (March 30, 1960); Mary Finkel, ‘‘Hyde Park-Kenwood Renewal Projects Celebrate Tenth Year,’’ Chicago Maroon (November 27, 1959). A few members of the community voiced criticism. See ‘‘Renewal Aids Racial Bias,’’ Chicago Maroon (November 19, 1959). Indeed, even Martin Luther King, Jr., visited the U of C in 1959, but offered nothing like the criticism he would level in 1966, instead working to promote Northern support for the Southern civil rights effort. ‘‘Dr. King Visits UC,’’ Chicago Maroon (October 30, 1959).
40.
See also Bryan Berry, The Impact of Urban Renewal on Small Business: The Hyde Park-Kenwood Case (Chicago, IL: Center for Urban Studies, 1968); David Spatz. ‘‘‘Safeguarding Community Values and Standards on Every Front’: The Crusade Against Taverns in Hyde Park Urban Renewal’’ (Unpublished MSS, 2002), in possession of author; and Janet Coleman, The Compass: The Improvisational Theatre That Revolutionized American Comedy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
41.
Mary Finkel .‘‘HP Redevelopment Plan Approved,’’Chicago Maroon (October 24, 1958). Equivalent to $284.5 million in inflation-adjusted, 2009 dollars. CPI Inflation Calculator. http://data.bls.gov (accessed January 7, 2010).
42.
Levi to Kimpton August 11, 1955, box 231, folder 3, KAP UCSC. Levi to Kimpton November 16, 1955, box 231, folder 3, KAP UCSC. Levi dismissed the effectiveness of citizen-led reform movements, claiming ‘‘I don’t believe ... that the ‘little people’ working at the ‘grass and weed’ roots are going to grow cabbages and other items of civic virtue.’’ Levi to Kimpton, April 7, 1955, folder 2, box 231, KAP UCSC.
43.
Examples include Section IV of the Housing Act of 1950 creating the College Housing Program within the HHFA; Keith Olson, The G. I. Bill, the Veterans and the Colleges (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1974); O’Mara, Cities of Knowledge; Stuart Leslie, The Cold War and American Science (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1994).
44.
Roger Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities since World War II (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1993), 165. See also Zuoyue Wang , In Sputnik’s Shadow: The President’s Science Advisory Committee and Cold War America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008 ).
45.
Kerr, The Uses of the University, 88. For more context on this postwar transformation, see Ethan Schrum, ‘‘Administering American Modernity: The Instrumental University in the Postwar United States’’ (PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 2009).
46.
Memo from John I. Kirkpatrick to George Baughman (NYU), John Moore (Penn), Edward Reynolds (Harvard), Stanley Salmen (Columbia), and Philip Stoddard (MIT), December 8, 1958, folder 5, box 14, KAP UCSC. Memo from Lawrence Kimpton to Arthur Adams (ACE), December 8, 1959, folder 5, box 14, KAP UCSC.
47.
Letter from Kimpton to Carroll Newsom, Clark Kerr, Nathan Pusey, and Ethan Sheply, January 7, 1959, folder 1, box 233, KAP UCSC. ‘‘Enactment in 1959 of Section 112 of Housing Act.’’ n.d., folder 1, box 233, KAP UCSC. Memo from Levi to J. I. Kirkpatrick, June 4, 1959, folder 1, box 233, KAP UCSC.
48.
Julian Levi quoted in Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 154.
49.
United States Congress, Committee on Banking and Currency, and Subcommittee on Housing, ‘‘Housing Act of 1959 Report (to Accompany S. 2539),’’ ( Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1959), 19. The formula allowed for a three-to-one match under certain circumstances where the federal government did not contribute planning costs.
50.
United States Congress, ‘‘Housing Act of 1959: Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, United States Senate, Eighty-Sixth Congress, First Session, on Various Bills to Amend the Federal Housing Laws’’ (Washington, DC: U.S. GPO, 1959), 500-530. In this instance, Levi testified with representatives from Seattle University, New York University, the University of Pennsylvania, and the University of Louisville.
51.
Roosevelt’s Second Inaugural Address. The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu (accessed October 2, 2009).
52.
Memo from UC Chancellor to Committee on Urban Renewal, Association of American Universities, January 7, 1959, folder 1, box 233, KAP UCSC. Paul Douglas, In the Fullness of Time: The Life of Paul Douglas (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1966).
53.
Levi interview, 89.
54.
Senate Bill 57 passed both houses of Congress in January 1959, but President Eisenhower vetoed it with a message about fiscal restraint.
55.
This was known as the Section 112 credits program because Section 418 of the 1959 act amended Section 112 of the Housing Act of 1949 to create the program.
56.
Levi interview, 83.
57.
Where previous scholarship has characterized this program as offering incentives and subsidies for universities to support urban renewal efforts, in fact these provisions were created by university interests to serve their desires for expansion and to create political leverage for their projects. See O’Mara, Cities of Knowledge, 78.
58.
Bachin, Building the South Side, 27-68. The university had identified the area south of the Midway as a point of concern up to two decades earlier but lacked the resources to act. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 147.
59.
Amanda Seligman discusses Sears, Roebuck & Company’s urban renewal activities on the west side at greater length in her book on Chicago. Seligman, Block by Block, 82. Notes from the UC Trustees Committee on Budget meeting, October 19, 1959, folder 1, box 233, KAP UCSC.
60.
Press release from U of C, July 18, 1960, folder 3, box 32, KAP UCSC. $14 million is equivalent to $102.3 million in inflation-adjusted, 2009 dollars. CPI Inflation Calculator http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/ cpicalc.pl (accessed January 7, 2010).
61.
Bauer had written an influential book on social housing in Europe, directed the U.S. Housing Authority, and served on the faculty at both MIT and Berkeley, where her husband, William Wurster, was the dean. Catherine Bauer, Modern Housing (New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin, 1934); Catherine Bauer, ‘‘The Dreary Deadlock of Public Housing,’’ Architectural Forum (May 1957), 140-42, 219-21.
62.
Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York, NY: Vintage, 1961). Later in the 1960s, such critiques came from the academy and from the libertarian right, including Herbert Gans, The Urban Villagers: Group and Class in the Life of Italian-Americans (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1962); Martin Anderson, The Federal Bulldozer: A Critical Appraisal of Urban Renewal, 1942-1962 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1964).
63.
Particularly notable in the case of Hyde Park was that the process of racial succession put three key constituencies of the liberal coalition at odds-African Americans, who sought housing and economic mobility in Hyde Park and Chicago; Jews, who had found tolerance and community in Hyde Park, many of whom were real estate owners, and who were in the process of moving from Hyde Park to Chicago suburbs; and the university’s white middle class technocrats. This community fragmentation seemed to foreshadow the breakup of the liberal coalition later in the 1960s and 1970s.
64.
The IAF’s effort was partially funded by the Catholic Archdiocese and the Schwartzhaupt Foundation.
65.
Horwitt, Let Them Call Me Rebel, 398.
66.
Scholarship on Black Power has taken an increasingly sympathetic view of these empowerment efforts, illustrating continuity in the transformation of the civil rights effort, rather than a violation or corruption of civil rights organizing. Fish, Black Power/White Control; Thomas Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York, NY: Random House, 2008); Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006); and Robert Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003).
67.
Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 162. Despres’ opponent accused him of stirring up racial trouble.
68.
William Dawson had long held power over black South Side politics as Representative to U.S. Congress and Committeeman for the 2nd Ward but was largely affiliated with Mayor Daley and the Cook County Democratic Party. James Q. Wilson, Negro Politics: The Search for Leadership (New York, NY: Free Press, 1965). For a revisionist view of Dawson’s career, see Christopher Manning, William L. Dawson and the Limits of Black Electoral Leadership (Dekalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2009). For another local challenge to a university-led renewal plan in Philadelphia, see O’Mara, Cities of Knowledge.
69.
Jane Jacobs , ‘‘Chicago’s Woodlawn-Renewal by Whom?,’’Architectural Forum, May 1962, 124.
70.
Adam Cohen and Elizabeth Taylor, American Pharaoh-Mayor Richard J. Daley: His Battle for Chicago and the Nation (Boston, MA: Little Brown, 2000), 288-89. Fish, Black Power/White Control, 71-73. UCSC. Seligman, Block by Block, 86.
71.
Levi interview, 88-92. See also John Hall Fish, Black Power/White Control: The Struggle of The Woodlawn Organization in Chicago (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973); Arthur Brazier, Black Self-Determination: The Story of the Woodlawn Organization (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1969); and The Woodlawn Organization, Woodlawn’s Model Cities Plan: A Demonstration of Citizen Responsibility (Northbrook, IL: Whitehall, 1970).
72.
Julian Levi, Municipal and Institutional Relations within Boston: The Benefits of Section 112 in the Housing Act of 1961 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1964); J. Martin Klotsche, The Urban University: And the Future of Our Cities (New York, NY: Harper & Row, 1966), 75-76, quoted in O’Mara, 78-79; and Kenneth Ashworth, ‘‘Urban Renewal and the University: A Tool for Campus Expansion and Neighborhood Improvement,’’ Journal of Higher Education 35, no. 9 (1964).
73.
‘‘Evolution of the Federal Urban Renewal Program,’’ Report 20 to The National Commission on Urban Problems. September 1968. Table D-4. Section 112 credits comprised approximately 1.75 percent of urban renewal net project costs through 1966. $92 million inflates to approximately $610 million in 2009 dollars. CPI Inflation Calculator. http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl (accessed July 24, 2010).
74.
Sarah Whiting , ‘‘The Jungle in the Clearing: Space, Form, and Democracy in America, 1940-1949’’ (PhD dissertation , Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2001); Sherry Tierney, ‘‘Rezoning Chicago’s Modernisms: Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe, Remment Koolhaas, the IIT Campus and Its Bronzeville Prehistory (1914-2003)’’ (MA thesis, Arizona State University, 2008); Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 135; Daniel Bluestone, ‘‘Chicago’s Mecca Flat Blues,’’ in Giving Preservation a History: Histories of Historic Preservation in the United States, ed. Max Page and Randall Mason (New York, NY: Routledge, 2004); and Michael Carriere, ‘‘Between Being and Becoming: On Architecture, Student Protest, and the Aesthetics of Liberalism in Postwar America’’ (PhD dissertation, University of Chicago, 2010).
75.
Memo from W. B. Harrell to Lawrence Kimpton, August 10, 1955 ‘‘CONFIDENTIAL,’’ box 36, folder 12, IIT 1955-65, KAP UCSC.
76.
David Harvey has recently argued that universities now comprise key members of the neoliberal coalitions of business and political leaders that have engineered the transformation of American cities and society. However, business-education alliances date from at least the turn of the century and are a fundamental feature of institutional growth and urbanization in education communities. David Harvey, The Limits to Capital, 2nd ed. (New York, NY: Verso, 1999). See also Thorstein Veblen, The Higher Learning in America: A Memorandum on the Conduct of Universities by Business Men (New York, NY: B.W. Huebsch, 1918); Clyde Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State: Corporate Liberalism and the Reconstruction of American Higher Education, 1894-1928 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990); and Christopher Newfield, Ivy and Industry: Business and the Making of the American University, 1880-1980 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003).
77.
Muriel Beadle , Where Has All the Ivy Gone? ( New York, NY: Doubleday and Co., 1972), 74.
78.
Don Blackiston to W. B. Harrell, September 4, 1956, box 231, folder 3, KAP UCSC. Don Blackiston to W. B. Harrell, August 28, 1956, box 231, folder 3, KAP UCSC.
79.
Alison Dunham et al. ‘‘Report of the Faculty Committee on Rental Policies,’’ folder 1, box 272, BAP UCSC.
Levi to Kimpton, November 3, 1954, folder 1, box 231, KAP UCSC.
82.
‘‘Memorandum,’’ November 1, 1955, folder 3, box 231, KAP UCSC.
83.
Julian Levi was particularly sensitive to the impact of racial demographics at local schools, arguing that significant minority school populations would provoke white disenrollment. Julian Levi to Gardner Stern, August 15, 1955, box 231, folder 13, KAP UCSC. Levi to Kimpton, Kirkpatrick, Harrell, July 7, 1959, folder 1, box 233, KAP UCSC.
84.
See, for example, Levi to Morton Bodfish, August 19, 1953, folder 5, box 230, KAP UCSC. Bodfish was the President of the First Federal Savings and Loan Association of Chicago. Levi to Mendel Flanders, August 19, 1953, folder 5, box 230, KAP UCSC.
85.
‘‘Lutherans Won’t Change Site, UC Will Help Students,’’Chicago Maroon (January 22, 1965).
86.
‘‘Resolution of the Fifty-Four Hundred University Woodlawn Block Club,’’ n.d. Lutheran School of Theology Chicago Archives (hereafter LSTCA). ‘‘Open Letter to the People of Hyde Park and Kenwood,’’ July 5, 1963. LSTCA. Press Release from Arthur Para, July 12, 1963. LSTCA.
87.
Letter from 5460 Woodlawn Corporation to Joseph Cox, October 4, 1963. LSTCA. Memo from C. H. Anderson to Robert J. Marshall, February 6, 1964. LSTCA.
88.
Letter from Jane MacMillen-Macurdy to LSTC, December 21, 1964. LSTCA.
89.
Frank Zimmerman to Helen (Mrs. David) Tanner, December 22, 1964. LSTCA.
90.
Frank Zimmerman to John Duba, November 11, 1964 . LSTCA.
91.
‘‘Reveal Site Plans for Lutheran Seminary,’’Chicago Maroon (February 25, 1965).
92.
Memo from Winston Kennedy to James Ritterskamp, September 7, 1965, folder 8, box 205, BAP UCSC. Records indicate SDS member Bernardine Dohrn was one of the students relocated in this redevelopment process. Memo from C. H. Anderson to Eugene Feit. April 3, 1965. LSTCA. New York University also employed this architectural strategy of surrounding a building in the Loeb Student Center (now demolished) when faced with a holdout building. Senate Committee on Banking and Currency, Housing Act of 1959: Hearings before the Committee on Banking and Currency 1959, 517.
93.
The Congress of Racial Equality was originally founded by a group of students at the U of C in 1942.
94.
Bob Hunter, ‘‘Students Protest U. of C. Housing Bias Policies,’’ Chicago Daily Defender (January 24, 1962). ‘‘Chicago CORE-LATOR,’’ January 1962, in ‘‘Diary of the Sit-Ins,’’ folder 1, box 272, BAP UCSC. 95. ‘‘CORE, UC Hassle; Students ‘Sleep-In,’’’ Chicago Maroon (January 24, 1962). ‘‘Realty Sit-Downers Arrested,’’ Chicago Maroon (January 25, 1962). ‘‘Chicago U. Stops Student Sit-In Charging Prejudice in Housing,’’ New York Times (February 6, 1962), 57. In the history department, one graduate student and his wife were arrested for participating in the protest, while another graduate student wrote President George Beadle a supportive letter describing the university’s ‘‘limited segregation policy’’ as ‘‘wholly justified.’’ Exhibit U, a list of students arrested for participating in the occupation of the real estate office. ‘‘Diary of the Sit-Ins,’’ folder 1, box 272, BAP UCSC. Letter from K. Jackson to Beadle January 20, 1962, ‘‘Diary of the Sit-Ins.’’ When ninety-four UC students signed a petition against the CORE demonstration, the university issued a press release to local media. January 23, 1962 press release, ‘‘Diary of the Sit-Ins.’’
95.
Exhibit P., ‘‘Diary of the Sit-Ins.’’
96.
Editorial, ‘‘The University of Chicago,’’Chicago Daily Defender (January 29, 1962).
97.
‘‘4 Comment on Segregation,’’Chicago Maroon (January 29, 1962).
98.
Alison Dunham et al. ‘‘Report of the Faculty Committee on Rental Policies,’’ folder 1, box 272, BAP UCSC. National Historical Geographic Information System, U.S. Census of Housing data for 1960 from Minnesota Population Center ( Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, 2004).
99.
Editorial, Chicago Daily Defender (March 12, 1962).
100.
Memo from Ely Aaron to George Beadle, March 26, 1962, box 22, folder 8. Commission on Human Relations 1956-62. Beadle Administration Papers (hereafter BAP), UCSC.
101.
Memo from William Harrell to Ray Brown, May 18, 1962. Memo from Ray Brown to Warner Wick May 29, 1962, box 22, folder 8, BAP UCSC.
102.
U of C students occupied the administration building in May, 1966, to protest the military draft and in February, 1969, to protest the dismissal of a faculty member, while Chicago and the university became key sites of the Black Power and anti-war movements. ‘‘U. of C. Sit-in Protests Aid to Draft Lists,’’ Chicago Tribune (May 12, 1966); Michael Smith and John O’Brien, ‘‘225 Seize Offices at U.C.,’’ Chicago Tribune (January 31, 1969). The national CORE, for example, was one of the key organizers of the protests at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago. Chicago was also the location for the October 1969 Days of Rage protests organized by Students for a Democratic Society. For a contemporaneous analysis of this phenomenon, see Theodore Roszak, The Making of a Counter Culture: Reflections on the Technocratic Society and its Youthful Opposition (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1969).
103.
The robust literature on the New Left has lamentably ignored student activists’ early engagements with campus development and mass education in shaping their later responses to universities, military research, and racial segregation. See, for example, Tom Hayden’s description of his experiences in his freshman dormitory at the University of Michigan, ‘‘Nearly thirteen hundred young men were cramped into my sterile quad . . . The barracks culture, with its twin lacks of privacy and community and its sink-or-swim message, extended to the academic sector as well.’’ Tom Hayden, Reunion: A Memoir (New York, NY: Random House, 1988), 27; Port Huron Statement from James Miller, Democracy is in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), 329.
104.
‘‘Dick Gregory on Urban Renewal: Will UC Ever Learn?’’Chicago Maroon (November 3, 1964).
105.
Students for a Democratic Society. ‘‘U of C as bulldozer: The Ins and Outs of Urban Renewal.’’ 1967. Northwestern University Special Collections. Other notable instances of student protest prompted or catalyzed by development include the Free Speech Movement at the University of California-Berkeley in the fall of 1964 and the campus takeover of Columbia University in the Spring of 1968.
106.
Major federal legislation with provisions in support of higher education includes 1944 Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, 1950 Housing Act, 1958 National Defense Education Act, 1959 Housing Act, and 1965 Higher Education Act, among others.
107.
See, for example, Columbia University, with which the U of C had a close working relationship throughout the 1950s and 1960s; the University of Pennsylvania, during its own urban renewal effort; and 1960s urban renewal efforts in Berkeley, California. O’Mara, Cities of Knowledge, 176; LaDale Winling, ‘‘Building the Ivory Tower: Campus Planning, University Development, and the Politics of Urban Space’’ (PhD dissertation, University of Michigan, 2010).
