This article argues that the movement against urban renewal emerged not only in the streets of American cities, but also in the halls of American universities. In response to the extensive redevelopment of New Haven in the 1950s and 1960s, students at the Yale School of Art and Architecture, and especially in the Department of City Planning, marshaled an extensive critique of their expanding university’s role in this top-down reconstruction. In the plight of impacted communities they found a parallel to their own frustrations as students. Envisioning a more “relevant” design pedagogy that deemphasized the role of the professional and lent greater power to the grassroots, students forced the hand of Yale president Kingman Brewster, Jr., who sought to protect the expertise and bureaucratic process he viewed as essential to liberalism. In their confrontation lay a fundamental shift in the order of urban redevelopment—and thus in the order of the modern city—in the last years of the 1960s.
"Statement Read to the New England Area AIA Conference,"Novum Organum1 ( 1968).
2.
Henry Stone, "Walkout,"Novum Organum1 (1968).
3.
Memo to the Yale Community from Kingman Brewster, April 9, 1968, Kingman Brewster, Jr., president of Yale University, Records, record unit 11, box 45, folder 3, Sterling Memorial Library (SML), Yale University, New Haven, CT (hereinafter cited as Brewster Records).
4.
On Yale’s involvement in New Haven’s urban renewal program, see Norman I. Fainstein and Susan S. Fainstein, "New Haven: The Limits of the Local State," in Susan S. Fainstein, Norman I. Fainstein, Richard Child Hill, Dennis Judd, and Michael Peter Smith, eds., Restructuring the City: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment (New York: Longman, 1983), 37-40; Vincent Scully, "Modern Architecture at Yale: A Memoir," in Lesley K. Baier, ed., Yale in New Haven: Architecture and Urbanism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press: 2004), 293-354, 343; Allan R. Talbot, The Mayor’s Game: Richard Lee of New Haven and the Politics of Change (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 71-86.
5.
I use "New Deal spatial order" after the "New Deal Order" characterized by Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle. See Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, eds., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990). On the origins of urban renewal’s clearance approach in federal policies of the 1920s and 1930s, see Wendell E. Pritchett, "The ‘Public Menace’ of Blight," Yale Law and Policy Review 21, no. 1 (Winter 2003): 1-52. On the characteristics of postwar liberalism in relation to the New Deal, see Alan Brinkley, "The New Deal and the Idea of the State," in Fraser and Gerstle, Rise and Fall, 109-10.
6.
Jon Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940-1985 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 113-20, 151.
7.
Samuel Kaplan, "New Haven Pursuing the Dream of a Slumless City," New York Times, September 7, 1965, 41. Also see Talbot, Mayor’s Game, 103-240; Fainstein and Fainstein, "New Haven."
8.
On the changing nature of liberalism in this period, see Robert Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003); Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996).
9.
On factors that brought the end of the New Deal order, see Gary Gerstle and Steve Fraser, "Introduction," in Fraser and Gerstle, Rise and Fall, xviii.
10.
On urban renewal protest in New Haven, see Fainstein and Fainstein, "New Haven"; Mandy Isaacs Jackson, Model City Blues: Urban Space and Organized Resistance in New Haven (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008).
11.
See Christopher Silver, Twentieth-Century Richmond: Planning, Politics and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984); Clarence Stone, Economic Growth and Neighborhood Discontent: System Bias in the Urban Renewal Program of Atlanta (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1976); John Emmeus Davis, Contested Ground: Collective Action and the Urban Neighborhood (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991); John Mollenkopf, The Contested City (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983); Christopher Klemek, "Urbanism as Reform: Modernist Planning and the Crisis of Urban Liberalism in Europe and North America: 1945-1975" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2004).
12.
See, e.g., Joel Schwartz, The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and the Redevelopment of the Inner City (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
13.
For this dichotomy, see Mollenkopf, Contested City. On growth coalitions, also see Teaford, Rough Road to Renaissance; Fainstein et al., Restructuring the City; Lizabeth Cohen, "Buying into Downtown Revival: The Centrality of Retail to Postwar Urban Renewal in American Cities," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 611 (May 2007): 82-95.
14.
For histories of the New Left that emphasize students’ pursuit of civil rights, demilitarization, "participatory democracy," and economic inequality, but do not consider their battles over urban space, see Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin, "The Failure and Success of the New Radicalism," in Fraser and Gerstle, Rise and Fall, 212-42; Maurice Isserman and Michael Kazin, America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); James Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987); Doug Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998).
15.
The Architects’ Resistance, "The Architects’ Resistance Statement, March 1969,"Perspecta29 (1998): vii.
16.
On the "failure" of the New Left, see Rossinow, Politics of Authenticity; Isserman and Kazin, "Failure and Success."
17.
On planning after the 1960s, see Suleiman Osman, "The Decade of the Neighborhood," in Bruce J. Schulman and Julian E. Zelizer, eds., Rightward Bound: Making America Conservative in the 1970s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 106-27.
18.
Kaplan, "New Haven Pursuing."
19.
Jackson, Model City Blues, 199, 209-11; Fainstein and Fainstein, "New Haven," 41-44.
20.
For a comprehensive account of the clearance and redevelopment of the Oak Street neighborhood, see Jackson, Model City Blues, 28-51; also see Fainstein and Fainstein, "New Haven," 40-41.
21.
Fainstein and Fainstein, "New Haven," 44-46; Kaplan, "New Haven Pursuing."
22.
Kaplan, "New Haven Pursuing."
23.
Scully, "Modern Architecture at Yale," 296; Fainstein and Fainstein, "New Haven," 37.
24.
Paul von Zielbauer, "Richard C. Lee, 86, Mayor Who Revitalized New Haven," New York Times, February 4, 2003.
25.
Fainstein and Fainstein, "New Haven," 39; Scully, "Modern Architecture at Yale," 343; Geoffrey Kabaservice, The Guardians: Kingman Brewster, His Circle, and the Rise of the Liberal Establishment (New York: Henry Holt, 2004), 251-52.
26.
Scully, "Modern Architecture at Yale," 323.
27.
Fainstein and Fainstein, "New Haven," 46-47. For an image of the site before clearance, see Scully, "Modern Architecture at Yale," 310.
28.
On the Art and Architecture Building’s inclusion in the Dwight Renewal Area, see New Haven Redevelopment Agency, "Annual Report 1966" (New Haven, CT: New Haven Redevelopment Agency, 1967[?]), 30, New Haven Redevelopment Agency Records, box 264, SML; Fainstein and Fainstein, "New Haven," 47. On the Art and Architecture Building’s architectural prominence, see Timothy M. Rohan, "Rendering the Surface: Paul Rudolph’s Art and Architecture Building at Yale," Grey Room 1 (Autumn 2000): 85.
29.
On Griswold’s modernization program and the numerous buildings constructed therein, see Scully, "Modern Architecture at Yale," 295-325.
30.
Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities (New York: Random House, 1961); Herbert Gans, The Urban Villagers: Group and Class in the Life of Italian-Americans (New York: Free Press, 1962); Martin Anderson, The Federal Bulldozer: A Critical Analysis of Urban Renewal, 1949-1962 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1964).
31.
Jackson, Model City Blues, 66-67, 76-77.
32.
For a full narrative of organizing in the Hill neighborhood, see Jackson, Model City Blues, 80-113.
33.
Ibid., 84-86.
34.
Kabaservice, Guardians, 224-25.
35.
Ibid., 376-77; Hugh Spitzer, "News Analysis: Yale Is Politicized," Yale Daily News, April 22, 1969.
36.
Isserman and Kazin, "Failure and Success," 223.
37.
"Crisis at Columbia: Report of the Fact-Finding Commission Appointed to Investigate the Disturbances at Columbia University in April and May 1968" (New York: Vintage, 1968), 87; also see Anthony Ward, "Resistance or Reaction? The Cultural Politics of Design," Architecture and Behavior 9, no. 1 (1993): 48-49.
38.
"Bulletin of Yale University School of Architecture, 1972-73" (New Haven, CT: Yale University , 1972), SML.
39.
Arthur Row, "The Physical Development Plan," Journal of the American Institute of Planners 26, no. 3 (1960): 179; Harry Wexler, "The Yale Saga: From Admissions Bust to Final Solution," Bulletin of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning 9, no. 3 (Autumn 1971): 3.
40.
"Bulletin of Yale University School of Art and Architecture" (New Haven, CT: Yale University , 1962), SML.
41.
On Rudolph, see Sibyl Moholy-Nagy, The Architecture of Paul Rudolph (New York: Praeger, 1970).
42.
Wexler, "Yale Saga,"3-4.
43.
Anthony Alofsin , The Struggle for Modernism: Architecture, Landscape Architecture, and City Planning at Harvard (New York: Norton, 2002), 162.
44.
Wexler, "Yale Saga,"4.
45.
Richard W. Hayes, The Yale Building Project: The First 40 Years (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 13-17. On Moore, also see Eve Blau, Architecture or Revolution: Charles Moore and Yale in the Late 1960s (New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Architecture, 2001).
46.
On Davidoff and curricular changes at the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Fine Arts, see Klemek, "Urbanism as Reform," 216-27.
47.
Paul Davidoff, "Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning," Journal of the American Institute of Planners 31, no. 4 (1965): 332. For a historical contextualization of advocacy planning, see Allan David Heskin, "Crisis and Response: A Historical Perspective on Advocacy Planning," Journal of the American Planning Association 46, no. 1 (1980): 50-63.
48.
Pat Goeters, "The Patrician Hangup," Perspecta 12 (1969): 45-48; "Bulletin of Yale University School of Art and Architecture" (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1963), SML; "Bulletin of Yale University School of Art and Architecture" (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1964), SML; "Bulletin of Yale University School of Art and Architecture" (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1965), SML; "Bulletin of Yale University School of Art and Architecture" (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1966), SML; "Bulletin of Yale University School of Art and Architecture" (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1967), SML; "Bulletin of Yale University School of Art and Architecture" (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1968), SML.
49.
On Brewster’s role in the "liberal establishment," his approach to liberalism, and the others with whom he associated, see Kabaservice, Guardians.
50.
Kingman Brewster, "Yale University Inaugural Address," April 11, 1964, Brewster Records, box 2, folder 5, SML, quoted in Kabaservice, Guardians, 187.
51.
Yale University News Bureau, "News Release #302," March 8, 1965, Brewster Records, box 44, folder 2, SML, quoted in Kabaservice, Guardians, 226.
52.
Rossinow, Politics of Authenticity , 4-5.
53.
Charles Moore would formalize these volunteer efforts as the annual "Yale Building Project," beginning in 1967. See Hayes, Yale Building Project, 16-17.
54.
Goeters, "Patrician Hangup"; Junius Williams, interview by author, Newark, NJ, January 18, 2008.
55.
Charles Benbow, "New Thing Communicates with Society," Saint Petersburg Times, April 28, 1971, 1D; "Topper Carew’s New Thing," Washington Post, January 10, 1969, B1; Melvin L. Mitchell, The Crisis of the African-American Architect (Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, 2002), 108.
56.
Stone, "Walkout." Stone became an ever more prominent figure in the Yale New Left during the ensuing two years, participating in protests not only at the School of Art and Architecture but also at university-wide events. In the spring of 1969 he played a leading role as art, design, and drama students called for greater financial aid, often using guerilla theater tactics such as a mock burial, a live-in at the Art and Architecture Building, and an "auction" of paintings at the Yale Art Gallery to illustrate their plight. In February 1970, he and another student designed a large plastic inflatable bubble as the site for a "conspiracy" on the New Haven Green intended to protest the Vietnam War, prosecution of the "Chicago 7," and actions against the Black Panthers, though the city eventually revoked the permit for the structure before it was deployed. In May 1970, Stone participated in the planning that led to Yale’s involvement in the national student strike, which protested the Vietnam War, the New Haven Black Panther trials, and American universities’ involvement in defense research. See Tom Warren, "A & A Students Camp Out to Protest Financial Aid Status," Yale Daily News, May 8, 1969; Tom Warren, "A & A Protesters Hold Mock Burial, Yale Daily News, May 9, 1969; Tom Warren, "Brewster to Face A & A Demands," Yale Daily News, May 12, 1969; Scott Herhold, "A & A School: Boxed In?" Yale Daily News, February 3, 1970; "Protests Set for Saturday," Yale Daily News, February 20, 1970; Stuart Rosow and Gideon Gordon, "Three Students Arrested During Anti-War Protest," Yale Daily News, February 23, 1970; William Bulkeley and Stuart Rosow, "Committee Endorses NationWide Strike as Anti-War Protest," Yale Daily News, May 4, 1970. On the Black Panther trials and Yale, see Paul Bass and Douglas W. Rae, Murder in the Model City: The Black Panthers, Yale, and the Redemption of a Killer (New York: Basic Books, 2006).
57.
58.
Stone, "Walkout." On Harris Stone, see Jackson, Model City Blues, 106. On the Enormous Room, see William S. Hamilton, "Letters: Mayorzilla," Yale Alumni Magazine, November/December 2003, http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/03_11/letters.html (accessed December 4, 2008). The students involved in the walkout continued to pursue these objectives as "the Architects’ Resistance" (TAR), a group that confronted architects’ role in apartheid South Africa, Office of Civil Defense Summer Institutes concerned with the design of fallout shelters, and other political dimensions of design. On TAR, see "The AIA Convention in Chicago: Students Effect a Change in the Profession," Progressive Architecture 50, no. 7 (August 1969): 24-27.
59.
Robert Cassidy, "Robert Moses and Urban Diplomacy,"Yale Daily News, December 10, 1968.
60.
Jeffrey Lewis, "City Fears University Expansion," Yale Daily News, October 10, 1968. Also see Clifford Stromberg, "Almond Relates Town to Gown," Yale Daily News, October 10, 1968; David Poppel and Timothy Bates, "Brewster Details Commitment; Black Militants Doubt Motives," Yale Daily News, October 10, 1968.
61.
Novum Organum 3 (January 1969); Manfred Ibel, "Whitney Griswold, A Great Builder?" Novum Organum 4 (1969). The A & A Building became an especially ripe target for criticism; in addition to commentary in Novum Organum, students in painting and sculpture publicly complained about their cramped working conditions. See "Art and Architecture Petition," Yale Daily News, May 9, 1967. For an excellent study of the central role that the Art and Architecture Building played in this period, see Tim McDonough, "The Surface as Stake: A Postscript to Timothy M. Rohan’s ‘Rendering the Surface,’" Grey Room 5 (Autumn 2001): 102-11.
62.
John Coots, "Barnes to Discuss Plans," Yale Daily News, November 25, 1968. Also see Walter Langsam, "Cross Campus Again: New Program: Old Design," Yale Daily News, December 10, 1968; Manfred Ibel, "Why Do We Have to Hide People and People’s Activities," Yale Daily News, December 10, 1968.
63.
Manfred Ibel and Herbert Short, "Away with Pointless Planning,"Yale Daily News, November 25, 1968.
64.
Herb Short, "A Campus Is for Students, So We Must Help Plan It,"Yale Daily News, December 10, 1968.
65.
Jackson, Model City Blues, 152-60. On Model Cities, see Charles Haar, Between the Ideal and the Reality: A Study of the Fate, Origin, and Legacy of the Model Cities Program (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975).
66.
See Self, American Babylon, 177-255.
67.
For instance, Goeters writes, "[Davidoff’s] concept seems to us to be in the ‘white caretaker’ tradition. He is relentlessly objective, dispassionate, uninvolved, detached from the ‘clients’ he advocates for. He seems to share the traditional patrician attitude that ‘we know what’s best for you.’" See Goeters, "Patrician Hangup," 48.
68.
"Ed Barnes Night: Act One of a Soon-to-be-Premiered Drama Based on the Experiences of the Yale Community Studio," Novum Organum 5 (1969); Pat Goeters, interview by author, Boston, MA, January 28, 2008. On the shift away from the professional and the abandonment of the "advocacy" model, see Heskin, "Crisis and Response," 58-61.
69.
Letter to Brewster from Short and Ibel, January 5, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 1, SML.
70.
Herbert Short and Manfred Ibel, "Working Draft: A Proposal for the Formation of The Yale Planning Forum: A Workshop for Student and Community Participation in Yale Physical Planning," January 6, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 1, SML.
71.
Letter to Charles Taylor from E. W. Y. Dunn, Jr., January 31, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 1, SML.
72.
Yale University News Bureau, News Release, February 3, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 1, SML, emphasis added.
73.
Richard Dozier , "The Black Architect at Yale,"Design Quarterly82/83 (1971): 16.
74.
Black Workshop, "Raison d’Etre," February 19, 1969[?], Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 6, SML.
75.
Richard Dozier, "Rethinking Designs of the 60s," Perspecta 29 (1998): 31. The "ring road," a circumferential highway meant to ease suburban access, was a city project enthusiastically supported by Yale and met heavy public criticism from the time the plan became public in the mid-1960s. See "Planner Tunnard Hits Proposed Highway Plan," Yale Daily News, April 14, 1967; Hugh Spitzer and Joe Gelles, "‘Reorientation’: SDS Knocks Universities," Yale Daily News, September 19, 1968; Adam Parry, "Duties of the Faculty" (letter), Yale Daily News, October 21, 1968.
76.
On Black Power and community control, see Self, American Babylon; Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006); Thomas Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008).
77.
Black Workshop, "Raison d’Etre."
78.
Ibid.
79.
These projects took place in May and February 1969, respectively. See Black Workshop, "Recommendations of Faculties of Design and Planning," June 1969[?], Brewster Papers, box 27, folder 4, SML.
80.
Letter to Howard Weaver from Black Workshop, May 12, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 6, SML. Also see Letter to Black Workshop from Weaver, May 7, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 6, SML.
81.
Black Workshop, "Raison d’Etre"; "A Comprehensive Proposal for the Founding and Funding of a Black Environmentalist Research, Planning, Design, and Development Corporation," October 1969, 3-4, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 6, SML.
82.
Dozier, "Black Architect at Yale," 16.
83.
Charles Korn , "Marginal Notes on Slap-Stick Comedy as Part of Middle-Level Technology,"Novum Organum3 (1969).
84.
Jim Swiss , "A & A School: Problems of Space, Student Power, Grading, and Relevancy,"Yale Daily News, January 15, 1969.
85.
Swiss, "A & A School"; "Notes from the Committee of 8,"Novum Organum3 ( 1969).
86.
Goeters, interview; Harry Wexler, interview by author, New Haven, CT, October 23, 2008. Yale Law School students and Yale College students also called for greater involvement in the governance of their respective schools in early 1969. See Rob Foster, "Students Ask for Share in Governing Law School," Yale Daily News, February 10, 1969; Laura Kalman, Yale Law School and the Sixties (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005); Tom Anderson, "Yale Trustees Hold Meeting in Locked Woodbridge Hall," Yale Daily News, March 10, 1969.
87.
"Rules and Bylaws of the Yale City Planning Department," April 14, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 9, SML.
88.
"Disbanding of the Department," Novum Organum 8 (1969); Letter to Weaver from Black Workshop, April 29, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 6, SML.
89.
"Disbanding of the Department." The protests over insufficient financial aid for students studying art, design, and drama that had been a major focus of activism throughout the spring undoubtedly informed the City Planning Forum’s actions. See Warren, "A & A Students Camp Out"; Warren, "Brewster to Face A & A Demands."
90.
Letter to Weaver from Taylor, April 29, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 1, SML.
91.
Letter to 12 Candidates from the City Planning Forum, May 22, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 27, folder 8, SML; Goeters, interview. For Weaver’s accounting of events, see Letter to the Faculty and Students in the Department of City Planning from Weaver, May 26, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 27, folder 8, SML.
92.
"Disbanding of the Department."
93.
Memo to Faculty and Students, School of Art and Architecture from Brewster, May 26, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 2, SML. The Art and Architecture Building suffered a devastating fire just two weeks after the debacle in the Department of City Planning, a coincidence that only heightened the fever pitch of this era in the School of Art and Architecture. New Haven’s fire marshal ultimately found no evidence suggesting that arson was the cause. See Thomas F. Lyden, Jr., Fire Marshal, "A & A Building, June 14, 1969 [Marshal’s report]," Brewster papers, box 27, folder 1, SML. Also see McDonough, "Surface as Stake"; Perspecta 29 (1998).
94.
Brewster, "Interim Administrative Arrangements for Work in the Arts, Architecture, and City Planning," September 15, 1969, Brewster papers, box 26, folder 2, SML; Memo to Alvin Kernan and Sam Chauncey from Joseph I. Leiberman, February 3, 1970, Brewster Papers, box 27, folder 2, SML; Letter to Wexler from Kernan, February 24, 1970, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 3, SML.
95.
Memo to Moore from Weaver, September 24, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 2, SML; Memo to Tunnard from Lieberman, February 19, 1970, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 3, SML.
96.
Letter to Tunnard from Garvin, November 10, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 26, folder 9, SML.
97.
"Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Future of Urban Studies at Yale," 2-4, 12, Brewster Papers, box 297, folder 1, SML.
98.
Chester Hartman, "Uppity and Out: A Case Study in the Politics of Faculty Reappointments (and the Limitations of Grievance Procedures)," in John Trumpbour, ed., How Harvard Rules: Reason in the Service of Empire (Boston: South End, 1989), 287-90.
99.
Letter to Moore, Jorge Hardoy, and Lieberman from Brewster, October 19, 1970, Brewster Papers, box 27, folder 2, SML.
100.
Brewster, "Memorandum Re: City Planning (draft)," December 7, 1970, Brewster Papers, box 27, folder 3, SML.
101.
Such an explanation is found, for instance, in "Introduction," Perspecta 29 (1998): xv. The authors write, "For the planners, such a stunningly disproportionate reaction only confirmed their suspicion that the administration was using the issue of admissions as a pretext to terminate the advocacy work towards which both university and school had long been hostile."
102.
Kingman Brewster, Jr., "The Morality of Reason: Baccalaureate Address, Sunday, June 8, 1969," Perspecta 29 (1998): inside front and back covers.
103.
Letter to John Perry Miller from Brewster, April 6, 1969, Brewster Papers, box 320, folder 5, SML.
104.
In 1954, twenty-one American universities contained planning programs; by 1978, ten offered bachelor’s degrees, eighty-three offered master’s degrees, and twenty-one offered PhDs. See Michael P. Brooks, "Four Critical Junctures in the History of the Urban Planning Profession: An Exercise in Hindsight," Journal of the American Planning Association 54, no. 2 (Spring 1988): 244.
105.
Ibid., 244-46; On two early community development corporations, see Kimberly Johnson, "Community Development Corporations, Participation, and Accountability: The Harlem Urban Development Corporation and the Bedford-Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 594, no. 1 (2004): 109-24; on neighborhoodism, including Community Development Block Grants, see Osman, "Decade of the Neighborhood"; on architectural postmodernism, see Heinrich Klotz, The History of Postmodern Architecture, trans. Radka Donnell (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988).
