Previous literature demonstrates that as a result of racial microaggressions and hostile campus racial climates, Latina/o students often state they experience psychological, physiological, and behavioral stress responses during and after racialized incidents on campuses. The purpose of this study is to quantitatively test the racial battle fatigue framework for Latina/o students using structural equation modeling. Findings suggest that psychological stress responses for Latinas/os are most impacted by racial microaggressions in the racial battle fatigue framework.
AlvarezA. N.JuangL.LiangC. T. H. (2006). Asian Americans and racism: When bad things happen to “model minorities.”Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12, 477-492.
2.
AncisJ. R.SedlacekW. E.MohrJ. J. (2000). Student perceptions of campus cultural climate by race. Journal of Counseling & Counseling Development, 78, 180-185.
3.
AraújoB. Y.BorrellL. N. (2006). Understanding the link between discrimination, mental health outcomes, and life chances among Latinos. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 28, 245-266.
4.
AronsonJ. (2004, November). The threat of stereotype. Educational Leadership, 62(3), 14-19.
5.
BlascovichJ.SpencerS. J.QuinnD.SteeleC. (2001). African Americans and high blood pressure: The role of stereotype threat. Psychological Science, 12, 225-229.
6.
Bonilla-SilvaE. (2004). From bi-racial to tri-racial: Towards a new system of racial stratification in the USA. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 27, 931-950.
7.
Bonilla-SilvaE. (2010). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States (3rd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
8.
BrondoloE.GalloL. C.MyersH. F. (2009). Race, racism and health: Disparities, mechanisms, and interventions. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 1-8.
9.
CarrollG. (1998). Environmental stress and African Americans: The other side of the moon. Westport, CT: Praeger.
10.
CattellR. B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1(2), 245-276.
11.
ClarkD. A.SpaniermanL. B.ReedT. D.SobleJ. R.CabanaS. (2011). Documenting weblog expressions of racial microaggressions that target American Indians. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 4, 39-50.
12.
ClarkR.AndersonN. B.ClarkV. R.WilliamsD. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805-816.
13.
FeaginJ. R. (1991). The continuing significance of race: Antiblack discrimination in public places. American Sociological Review, 56, 101-116.
14.
FeaginJ. R.CobasJ. A. (2013). Latinos facing racism: Discrimination, resistance, and endurance. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers.
15.
FeaginJ. R.McKinneyK. D. (2003). The many cost of racism. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
16.
FeaginJ. R.SikesM. P. (1994). Living with racism: The Black middle class experience. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
17.
FloresS. M.ChapaJ. (2009). Latino immigrant access to higher education in a bipolar context of reception. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 8, 90-109.
18.
GloriaA. M.Pope-DavisD. B. (1997). Cultural ambience. In Pope-DavisD. B.ColemanH. L. K. (Eds.), Multicultural Aspects of Counseling Series: Vol. 7. Multicultural counseling competencies: Assessment, education and training, and supervision (pp. 242-262). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
19.
GonzalesP. M.BlantonH.WilliamsK. J. (2002). The effects of stereotype threat and double-minority status on the test performance of Latino women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 659-670.
20.
GreeneM. L.WayN.PahlK. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42, 218-236.
21.
HarperS. R.HurtadoS. (2007). Nine themes in campus racial climates and implications for institutional transformation. In HarperS. R.PattonL. D. (Eds.), New Directions for Student Services: Vol. 120. Responding to the realities of race on campus (pp. 7-24). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
22.
HarrellS. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42-57.
23.
HillL. K.KobayashiI.HughesJ. W. (2007). Perceived racism and ambulatory blood pressure in African American college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 33, 404-421.
24.
HuL.-T.BentlerP. (1995). Evaluating model fit. In HoyleR. H. (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 76-99). London, England: SAGE.
25.
HuL.-T.BentlerP. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55.
26.
HurtadoS. (1992). The campus racial climate: Contexts of conflict. Journal of Higher Education, 63, 539-569.
27.
HurtadoS.CarterD. F. (1997). Effects of college transition and perceptions of the campus racial climate on Latino college students’ sense of belonging. Sociology of Education, 70, 324-345.
28.
HwangW. C.GotoS. (2008). The impact of perceived racial discrimination on the mental health of Asian American and Latino college students. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14, 326-335.
29.
JohnsonD. R.SoldnerM.LeonardJ. B.AlvarezP.InkelasK. K.Rowan-KenyonH.LongerbeamS. D. (2007). Examining sense of belonging among first-year undergraduates from different racial/ethnic groups. Journal of College Student Development, 48, 525-542.
30.
JohnsonD. R.WassermanT. H.YildirimN.YonaiB. A. (2014). Examining the effects of stress and campus climate on the persistence of students of color and White students: An application of Bean and Eaton’s psychological model of retention. Research in Higher Education, 55, 75-100.
31.
JonesL.CastellanosJ.ColeD. (2002). Examining the ethnic minority student experience at predominantly White institutions: A case study. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 1, 19-39.
32.
KlonoffE. A.LandrineH.UllmanJ. B. (1999). Racial discrimination and psychiatric symptoms among Blacks. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 5, 329-339.
33.
KriegerN.SidneyS. (1996). Racial discrimination and blood pressure: The CARDIA study of young Black and White adults. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 1370-1378.
34.
LandrineH.KlonoffE. A.CorralI.FernandezS.RoeschS. (2006). Conceptualizing and measuring ethnic discrimination in health research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 79-94.
35.
LeafgranF. A. (1989). Health and wellness programs. In UpcraftM. L.GardnerJ. N. (Eds.), The freshman year experience (pp. 156-167). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
36.
LiangC. T. H.AlvarezA. N.JuangL. J.LiangM. X. (2007). The role of coping in the relationship between perceived racism and racism related stress for Asian Americans: Gender differences. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 132-141.
37.
LocksA. M.HurtadoS.BowmanN. A.OsegueraL. (2008). Extending notions of campus climate and diversity to students’ transition to college. The Review of Higher Education, 31, 257-285.
38.
LopezJ. D. (2005). Race-related stress and sociocultural orientation among Latino students during their transition into a predominately White, highly selective institution. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 4, 354-365.
McCabeJ. (2009). Racial and gender microaggressions on a predominantly-White campus: Experiences of Black, Latina/o and White undergraduates. Race, Gender & Class, 16, 133-151.
41.
McDonaldR. P.HoM. H. R. (2002). Principles and practice in reporting structural equation analyses. Psychological Methods, 7, 64-82.
42.
MoradiB.RiscoC. (2006). Perceived discrimination experiences and mental health of Latina/o American persons. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 411-421.
43.
NevilleH. A.HeppnerP. P.JiP.ThyeR. (2004). The relations among general and race-related stressors and psychoeducational adjustment in Black students attending predominantly White institutions. Journal of Black Studies, 34, 599-618.
44.
OteroR.RivasO.RiveraR. (2007). Predicting persistence of Hispanic students in their 1st year of college. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 6, 163-173.
45.
PearlJ. (2000). Causality: Models, reasoning, and inference (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
46.
PfeiferC. M.SchneiderB. (1974). University climate perceptions by Black and White students. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59, 660-662.
47.
PierceC. M. (1970). Offensive mechanisms. In BarbourF. B. (Ed.), The Black seventies (pp. 265-282). Boston, MA: Porter Sargent.
48.
PierceC. M. (1974). Psychiatric problems of the Black minority. In CaplanG.ArietiS. (Eds.), American handbook of psychiatry (pp. 512-523). New York, NY: Basic Books.
49.
PierceC. M. (1975a). The mundane extreme environment and its effect on learning. In BrainardS. G. (Ed.), Learning disabilities: Issues and recommendations for research (pp. 111-119). Washington, DC: National Institute of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
50.
PierceC. M. (1975b). Poverty and racism as they affect children. In BerlinI. (Ed.), Advocacy for child mental health (pp. 92-109). New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.
51.
PierceC. M. (1988). Stress in the workplace. In Coner-EdwardsA. F.SpurlockJ. (Eds.), Black families in crisis: The middle class (pp. 27-35). New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.
52.
PierceC. M. (1995). Stress analogs of racism and sexism: Terrorism, torture, and disaster. In WillieC.RiekerP.KramerB.BrownB. (Eds.), Mental health, racism and sexism (pp. 277-293). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburg Press.
53.
PierceC. M.CarewJ.Pierce-GonzalezD.WillsD. (1978). An experiment in racism: TV commercials. In PierceC. (Ed.), Television and education (pp. 62-88). Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
54.
ReynoldsA. L.SnevaJ. N.BeehlerG. P. (2010). The influence of racism-related stress on the academic motivation of Black and Latino/a students. Journal of College Student Development, 51, 135-149.
55.
RyanA. M.GeeG. C.LaflammeD. F. (2006). The association between self-reported discrimination, physical health, and blood pressure: Findings from African American, Black immigrants, and Latino immigrants in New Hampshire. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 17, 116-132.
56.
SaldañaD. H. (1995). Acculturative stress: Minority status and distress. In PadillaA. M. (Ed.), Hispanic psychology: Critical issues in theory and research (pp. 43-54). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
57.
SawyerP. J.MajorB.CasadB. J.TownsendS. S.MendesW. B. (2012). Discrimination and the stress response: Psychological and physiological consequences of anticipating prejudice in interethnic interactions. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 1020-1026.
58.
SchmaderT.JohnsM. (2003). Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 440-452.
59.
SellersR. M.SheltonJ. N. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1079-1092.
60.
SimonH. A. (1953). Causal ordering and identifiability. In HoodW. C.KoopmansT. C. (Eds.), Cowles Commission for Research in Economics: Monograph No. 14. Studies in econometric method (pp. 49-74). New York, NY: John Wiley.
61.
SmithW. A. (2004). Black faculty coping with racial battle fatigue: The campus racial climate in a post-civil rights era. In ClevelandD. (Ed.), A long way to go: Conversations about race by African American faculty and graduate students at predominately White institutions (pp. 171-190). New York, NY: Peter Lang.
62.
SmithW. A. (2009a). Campus wide climate: Implications for African American students. In TillmanL. (Ed.), A handbook of African American education (pp. 297-309). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
63.
SmithW. A. (2009b). Higher education: Racial battle fatigue. In SchaeferR. T. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of race, ethnicity, and society (pp. 615-618). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
64.
SmithW. A.AllenW. R.DanleyL. L. (2007). “Assume the position . . . you fit the description”: Campus racial climate and the psychosocial experiences and racial battle fatigue among African American male college students. American Behavioral Scientist, 51, 551-578.
65.
SmithW. A.YossoT. J.SolórzanoD. G. (2007). Racial primes and Black misandry on historically White campuses: Toward critical race accountability in educational administration. Educational Administration Quarterly, 43, 559-585.
66.
SolbergV. S.VillarrealP. (1997). Examination of self-efficacy, social support, and stress as predictors of psychological and physical distress among Hispanic college students. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 19, 182-201.
67.
SolórzanoD. G. (1998). Critical race theory, race and gender microaggressions, and the experience of Chicana and Chicano scholars. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11, 121-136.
68.
SolórzanoD. G.AllenW.CarrollG. (2002). Keeping race in place: Racial microaggressions and campus racial climate at the University of California, Berkeley. Chicano-Latino Law Review, 23, 15-112.
69.
SolórzanoD. G.CejaM.YossoT. (2000). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The experiences of African American college students. Journal of Negro Education, 69(1-2), 60-73.
70.
SotoJ. A.Dawson-AndohN. A.BeLueR. (2011). The relationship between perceived discrimination and generalized anxiety disorder among African Americans, Afro Caribbeans, and non-Hispanic Whites. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 258-265.
71.
SteeleC. M. (1992, April). Race and the schooling of Black Americans. The Atlantic Monthly, 269(4), 68-78.
72.
SteeleC. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613-629.
73.
SteeleC. M.AronsonJ. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.
74.
SteigerJ. H. (2007). Understanding the limitations of global fit assessment in structural equation modeling. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 893-898.
75.
SueD. W. (2010). Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
76.
SueD. W.BucceriJ.LinA. I.NadalK. L.TorinoG. C. (2007). Racial microaggressions and the Asian American experience. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 72-81.
77.
SueD. W.CapodilupoC. M.HolderA. M. B. (2008). Racial microaggressions in the life experience of Black Americans. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39, 329-336.
78.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
79.
TorresL.DriscollM. W.VoellM. (2012). Discrimination, acculturation, acculturative stress, and Latino psychological distress: A moderated mediational model. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18, 17-25.
80.
TruongK.MuseusS. (2012). Responding to racism and racial trauma in doctoral study: An inventory for coping and mediating relationships. Harvard Educational Review, 82, 226-254.
81.
UtseyS. O.ChaeM. H.BrownC. F.KellyD. (2002). Effects of ethnic group membership on ethnic identity, race-related stress and quality of life. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 366-377.
82.
ValenciaR. R. (2008). Chicano students and the courts: The Mexican American legal struggle for educational equality. New York: New York University Press.
83.
VillalpandoO. (2003). Self-segregation or self-preservation? A critical race theory and Latina/o critical theory analysis of a study of Chicana/o college students. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 16, 619-646.
84.
WeiM.KuT.-Y.LiaoK. Y.-H. (2011). Minority stress and college persistence attitudes among African American, Asian American, and Latino students: Perception of university environment as a mediator. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 195-203.
85.
WilliamsD. R. (1996). Racism and health: A research agenda. Ethnicity & disease, 6(1-2), 1-8.
86.
WilliamsD. R.Williams-MorrisR. (2000). Racism and mental health: The African American experience. Ethnicity & Health, 5, 243-268.
87.
WilliamsD. R.YuY.JacksonJ. S.AndersonN. B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2, 335-351.
88.
WrightS. (1921). Correlation and causation. Journal of Agriculture Research, 20, 557-585.
89.
YossoT. J.SmithW. A.CejaM.SolórzanoD. G. (2009). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate for Latina/o undergraduates. Harvard Educational Review, 79, 659-691.
