Assessing Classroom Management Practices: Setting the Stage for Effective and Equitable Intervention

Abstract

This introduction to the special series, “Assessing Classroom Management Practices: Setting the Stage for Effective and Equitable Intervention” overviews the importance of classroom management and how the field defines classroom management and previews the articles included in this special issue. The purpose of the special issue was to provide readers with wide-ranging assessment tools, their strengths, and weaknesses used to assess classroom management practices. This extends to how researchers analyze classroom management data and novel approaches to analyses. Readers will see the special issue leads with a thorough meta-analysis of existing classroom management assessment tools, followed by descriptions of other tools and related practices.

Teaching seems to require the sort of skills one would need to pilot a bus full of live chickens backwards, with no brakes, down a rocky road through the Andes while providing colorful and informative commentary on the scenery (Habit, 2018).

Teaching is much more than presenting academic instruction. A large component of each teacher’s day is connecting with students and setting up routines to support students’ understanding of what is expected during instruction. It provides students with a safe and supportive community where they explore topics while learning new skills, working together, taking intellectual risks, and learning to work independently. To do this, teachers spend energy and time during academic instruction preventing and responding to unwanted distractions, disruptions, off-task behavior, and other behavioral challenges (e.g., Brophy & Good, 1986). This skill has had many different labels over time, most commonly “classroom management.” Of course, classroom management is not so much a singular thing as it is a collection of practices, strategies, and interactions between students and teachers. We define classroom management as the collection of practices that prevent and respond to common behaviors that compromise the learning environment or instruction in inclusive classrooms. This includes many common practices not exclusive to classroom management, but generally regarded as necessities for quality instruction (e.g., building relationships, greeting students at the door, using reminders, optimizing seating, providing behavior-specific praise, setting clear norms or expectations, supervising students; Sabornie & Espelage, 2023). Like many others, we regard classroom management as distinct from behavior management (Stevenson et al., 2020; e.g., focus on intensive behavioral needs of individuals), although these concepts have a great deal of overlap.

What Is Classroom Management and Why Focus on It?

In certain cases, the term “classroom management” may have a decidedly negative connotation. Some may even characterize the term itself as pejorative. For example, Calais and Green (2022) highlight the importance of inspecting positive behavior support and discipline response strategies for their role in victimizing students and perpetuating white supremacy. Another perspective is that classroom management is about control of individual students and that behaviorism is harmful to students (Kohn, 2001). To be clear, we advocate against manipulative or harmful techniques aimed at controlling students and against strategies that contribute to the perpetuation of racism and discrimination in any way. But implemented effectively, these concerns should be alleviated by effective, contextually, and culturally relevant classroom management practices (e.g., co-creating classroom expectations, equitable distribution of positive practices such as praise and opportunities to respond, and centering connection and building relationships with students rather than punitive and corrective practices). There are great philosophical discussions to be had on the role of the teacher and what vocabulary to use in describing one’s skill and influence over students’ behavior. However, neither the term “classroom management” itself nor the collection of practices referenced above are inherently problematic if implemented properly. By our definition, classroom management is merely a practical means of framing the skills teachers need to create an inclusive and supportive environment conducive to intellectual, behavioral, and social–emotional growth through connection, using contextually and culturally relevant practices. Regardless of one’s position on the term itself, there is no denying teachers have a professional, practical, and ethical duty to create and maintain an environment in which all students learn.

Classroom teachers can, and should, prevent behaviors that make learning more difficult for all students. And when unexpected behaviors do arise, the teacher must respond to those behaviors in ways that limit any potential negative effects (e.g., damaged relationships, shame, harm), both immediately and into the future (Youngs et al., 2023). This is work the teacher cannot do in isolation; it requires cooperation and collaboration with students. Students respond to connection, instruction, rules, routines, and procedures. Teachers must deftly navigate (manage) complex interactions and behaviors, and choose an appropriate and effective response. While we refer to this as “classroom management” throughout this special issue, we invite readers to continue to interrogate the role of “managing” or “controlling” practices and how these practices may or may not lead to students forming connections, feeling a sense of belonging, inclusion for all students, and ultimately learning.

Recently, teacher attrition has risen sharply (Ingersoll et al., 2021), and fewer people are enrolling in teacher education programs nationwide (García et al., 2023). In response, many states have lowered requirements for training and licensure, which only serves to feed the cycle of teachers entering the workforce ill-prepared to effectively address common behavior problems (Franco & Patrick, 2023). Classroom management is one of many topics in education that is, at once, a constant topic of discussion, and yet perpetually ignored by policymakers and higher education administrators as academic instruction is often prioritized over behavioral instruction (Stevenson et al., 2020).

Failure to prioritize classroom management as the bedrock of prevention that enables effective instruction creates an environment in which minor behavior issues are more likely to flourish and become more intensive. Under these conditions, educators have little choice but to rely on more traditional disciplinary practices that rely on exclusion and punitive consequences. Exclusionary and punitive forms of discipline although are not effective, harmful, and lead to disconnection, poor achievement, and equity concerns (Gage et al., 2019; MacSuga-Gage et al., 2021). Rather than leaning on reactive practices, educators need proactive approaches to supporting students’ social–emotional–behavioral outcomes. It is only one subset of the skills teachers need to prevent and respond to behaviors that make teaching more difficult than it needs to be.

Purpose of the Special Series

As difficult as it is to teach effective classroom management practices, it is just as difficult to assess the teacher behaviors we refer to as “classroom management” practices, particularly because the field does not have one defined set of such practices or a single tool for assessing these practices. Instead, the field currently has a wide array of teacher practices that may be considered “classroom management” practices, differing opinions about the role of classroom management in equitable, culturally responsive schools and classrooms, and a lack of cohesion around subjective, yet seemingly important constructs related to classroom management such as student–teacher relationships, warmth, connection, belonging, and inclusion. The purpose of this special issue of Assessment for Effective Intervention (AEI) is to present a variety of articles focused on assessing classroom management practices. Assessing classroom management carries a unique set of conceptual and technical challenges with wide-ranging implications for teacher training, research, and school improvement. This special issue was conceived to (a) showcase cutting-edge research on classroom management, (b) highlight specific challenges in classroom management research, and (c) show how effective assessment of key areas within and around classroom management can be leveraged to improve the quality of instruction and intervention.

We are under no illusions that a single special issue of a peer-reviewed scientific journal will turn the tide of behavior issues in public education, nor stem the crisis of teacher attrition. Our aim in crafting this issue is to chip away at the expanse of fractured, diffused, and undiscovered information on classroom management and provide a useful cohesive resource by which to make incremental progress. We hope the articles compiled here will illuminate a pathway to improved teacher training and improved educational experiences for children. The articles selected for this special issue present novel findings through various research designs. Each article showcases the complexity and importance of classroom management research, along with the many practical, logistical, and methodological challenges.

Classroom Management Assessment

The skills, assessments, and outcomes of evidence-based classroom management span the fields of teacher education, special education, and psycho-educational assessment. Despite more than four decades of research and development on classroom management issues, there is little consensus on the most effective methods of assessments and how those assessments should be used in classroom settings. Likewise, there is great untapped potential in classroom management for ensuring equity and engagement of learners that have been historically and systemically ill-served in public schools.

Methods of assessment vary quite dramatically in the scope and type of data collected (e.g., direct observation, rating scales, self-reports, rubrics) as well as the consistency, reliability, and social validity of such instruments. Various forms of tools are available to collect these data (e.g., video analysis, classroom observation). In light of the recent pandemic, researchers are reconceptualizing classroom management to include synchronous (live, online) as well as dual-modality (blended online/in person) settings (Hirsch et al., 2021). This reconceptualization also means data collection strategies must be adapted or invented to meet new conditions. Furthermore, the field is moving toward implementing and assessing equitable, culturally responsive classroom practices which require valid, reliable assessment as well. Each of these new branches adds a layer of complexity to an already convoluted field of study. As the scope and purpose of classroom management assessment evolve, so must the assessments themselves. Existing tools and techniques must be honed and adapted to new situations. New tools must also be developed to meet specialized needs and contexts. Data produced by such tools need to be easily interpretable and actionable. And, teachers and administrators need proper training to make meaningful, effective use of these tools in challenging practical classroom settings.

Scope and Purpose of This Special Issue

Currently, there are no cohesive sources of information on assessment of classroom management that draw together and unpack the technical and practical implications for various approaches to classroom management assessment. The purpose of this special issue is to summarize and highlight various approaches to assessing classroom management, and the ways such assessment can be used to inform teacher practice and professional improvement. Authors were asked to specifically address the ways in which an approach or instrument for assessing classroom management including equitable and culturally responsive practices can inform teacher practice and/or the classroom environment that serves as backdrop for instruction and intervention for all students.

Summary of Included Articles

This special issue solicited submissions across a wide array of approaches and traditions. Preference was given to articles that specifically addressed issues of engagement, justice, and equity in classroom management practices and assessments. There are two types of articles in this special issue. First, we have four full reports. These are full articles that describe psychometric studies and outcomes. Then, we have two brief reports. Brief reports are shorter articles that highlight key components of classroom practice assessment but do not extend to the full description seen in the full reports. The standards of practice and process of peer review are identical for full and brief reports. Articles were chosen through an open submission process, and were all fully peer-reviewed in a masked process by reviewers with extensive expertise and experience. This process yielded six strong and diverse articles that we hope will contribute to the literature base and practical application of assessment, tool development, and educational practice. Moreover, the six articles related to assessing classroom management illuminate how classroom management research has evolved over time and foreshadow the direction of classroom management research into the future.

To frame the wide range of existing and overlapping assessment tools, the first article in the issue is a systematic review and meta-analysis of classroom management assessment. Jason Chow, Robin Sayers, Yang Fu, Kristen Granger, Shannon McCullough, Corinne Kingsbery, and Ashley Morse describe existing assessment of classroom management in the school-based literature along with their psychometric properties. The authors analyzed 74 studies which captured 76 different classroom management assessments. They describe the high levels of variability in assessment, study designs, ages of student populations, duration in number and length of observations, as well as number of items on surveys and scales. To that end, they provide implications for future research in classroom management.

The second article importantly focuses on classroom management practices that are culturally sustaining, and how best to use assessment of classroom management practices to promote equity. Schools often rely on office discipline referral data as a marker for disproportionality. This article by Lindsay Romano steps beyond office referrals to capture more nuanced information on the ways teachers use classroom management assessments to inform. This article presents qualitative findings from 25 educators that highlight how educators do or do not integrate culture into their classroom management practices and how assessment data can be or are used to promote equitable instructional opportunities for all students, and presents a hopeful glance at how best to extend this work in the future.

The third article describes the development and evaluation of the Assessing School Settings: Interactions of Students and Teachers (ASSIST; Rusby et al., 2011) tool. Catherine Bradshaw, Heather McDaniel, Chelsea Kaihoi, Summer Braun, Elise Pas, Jessika Bottaini, Ann Cash, and Katrina Debham describe a pair of complementary studies designed to evaluate the reliability and validity of ASSIST across a variety of classrooms and school types. Results of these studies indicate the ASSIST instrument and protocols produce consistent and reliable observational data over time and across a variety of settings. The strength of evidence suggests ASSIST is a suitable tool for data collection in research and practice applications. Implications, recommended uses, context, and limitations are discussed.

The fourth article from Jessica Torelli, Christina Noel, Thomas Gross, and Kaitlyn Morris presents a novel approach to not only assessing classroom management but how to analyze those data and make the best use of data to provide necessary professional learning to improve practice. They suggest an adapted alternating treatments design may be a simple and efficient approach to collecting data, analyzing data, and using these data to support teachers. They worked with eight classroom teachers and introduced an online supplementary intervention and coaching as an intervention to promote effective classroom management practices. This adaptation of methods commonly used in single-subject experimental research to application in professional development has distinct advantages over more traditional forms of professional development.

The fifth article is a brief report on the Classroom Atmosphere Rating Scale–Brief (CARS-B; Wehby et al., 1993) with a focus on student behavior. Allison Gilmour, Joseph Wehby, Jessica Boyle, Howard P. Wills, and Paul Caldarella assessed the properties of the CARS-B using item response theory and multilevel models. They found that the CARS-B is a promising tool for assessing classroom management as the theta scores were positively associated with students’ on-task behavior. They also describe considerations for future research related to revising the CARS-B.

To conclude the special issue, Anniette Maldano, Aaron Fischer, Hannah Michael Wright, Rylee Jensen, Ashley Coombs, Sara Mathis, Keely Lundy, Leanne Hawken, Keith Radley, and Lauren Perez present a brief report of preliminary validation for a universal classroom management assessment tool. This brief report describes the results of a factor analysis of the Components of a Successful Classroom (CSC; Fischer et al., 2019) tool. Results indicate the assessment tool performs best with three factors (i.e., preventive supports, feedback provision and engagement, and expectations and consequences) and the results of this assessment tool can be used to provide targeted consultation to support more effective classroom management practices.

Conclusion

Classroom management in schools is one area in desperate need of improvement. Without high-quality, accurate, reliable, and meaningful means of assessment, it is impossible to make consistent systematic improvements in teacher training, disciplinary outcomes, or any other outcome of importance. The articles in this special issue of AEI represent a cross-section of approaches, methods, and priorities in classroom management research. Individually, they each make an important contribution. Chow and colleagues pull together pertinent information into a helpful meta-analysis and descriptive review. Bradshaw and colleagues overview the ASSIST tool that was used across elementary and middle school with 41 teachers. Similarly, Gilmour and colleagues overview the CARS-B but this was tested with 158 general education and special educators. Also, Maldano and colleagues report on the use of the CSC that was tested in general education but inform consultation. The article by Torelli and colleagues also describes the use of assessment data in coaching but worked across PK to 12 with seven teachers. Finally, Romano reports on important qualitative findings from secondary teachers. Together they showcase key challenges and innovations in the evolution of classroom management assessment, training, and application. We encourage readers to think of these articles not as endpoints, but as catalysts for further creativity and scientific study.

Moreover, we encourage readers to think critically about how each of the articles applies to students and teachers in contemporary classrooms. As the journal’s name itself suggests, assessment has a specific purpose. Advancements in the assessment and classroom management skills are not merely for the advancement of science but for the expressed purpose of providing more effective educational experiences for students, particularly for those with persistent learning challenges. The articles included in this special issue provide assessment approaches across diverse settings and with a diverse populations of teachers and students. Articles report from Pre-K to 12th grades, include general education and special education teachers, and vary in their assessment methods from brief tools (e.g., CARS-B; nine items) to longer methods (e.g., ASSIST; 42 items, 15-minute observation). We conceived and crafted this special issue of AEI under a refrain of what this work means for students and teachers. We hope readers will do the same.