Results of an exploratory study of eligibility decisions made for 19 Spanish-speaking English language learners (ELLs), who qualified for special education in early childhood and subsequently received special education reading instruction, are reported. Full and individual evaluations revealed that only 9 students demonstrated significant Intelligence Quotient–reading achievement discrepancies. Because the study's purpose was to describe characteristics of ELLs with reading-related learning disabilities (LD), these students became the focus of analyses. After examining data from students' school records, an expert panel concluded that 1 student had reading-related LD, 3 had disabilities other than LD, and 5 had problems that could be explained by other factors. Issues associated with the special education identification process for ELLs are discussed and recommendations for improving practice are offered.
Abedi, J., Hofstetter, C.H., & Lord, C. (2004). Assessment accommodations for English-language learners: Implications for policy-based empirical research. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 1-28.
2.
Artiles, A.J., Rueda, R., Salazar, J., & Higareda, I. (2005). Within-group diversity in minority disproportionate representation: English Language Learners in urban school districts. Exceptional Children, 71, 283-300.
3.
Bradley, R., Danielson, L., & Hallahan, D.P. (2002). Identification of learning disabilities: Research to practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
4.
Catts, H.W. (1991). Early identification of dyslexia: Evidence from a follow-up study of speech-language impaired children. Annals of Dyslexia, 41, 163-177.
5.
Collier, C., & Hoover, J.J. (1987). Sociocultural considerations when referring minority children for learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Focus, 3(1), 39-45.
6.
Damico, J.S. (1991). Descriptive assessment of communicative ability in limited English proficient students. In E.V. Hamayan & J. S. Damico (Eds.), Limiting bias in the assessment of bilingual students (pp. 157-217). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
7.
DeAvila, E., & Duncan, S. (1991). Language assessment scales. San Rafael, CA: Linguametrics.
8.
Figueroa, R.A. (2002). Towards a new model of assessment. In A. J. Artiles & A. A. Ortiz (Eds.), English language learners with special education needs (pp. 51-63). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.
9.
Fletcher, J.M., Coulter, W.A., Reschly, D.J., & Vaughn, S. (2004). Alternative approaches to the definition and identification of learning disabilities: Some questions and answers. Annals of Dyslexia, 54, 304-331.
10.
Francis, D.J., Fletcher, J.M., Stuebing, K.K., Lyon, G.R., Shaywitz, B.A., & Shaywitz, S.E. (2005). Psychometric approaches to the identification of LD: IQ and achievement scores are not sufficient . Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 98-108.
11.
Francis, D.J., Fletcher, J.M., Shaywitz, B.A., Shaywitz, S.E., & Rourke, B.P. (1996). Defining learning and language disabilities: Conceptual and psychometric issues with the use of IQ tests. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 27, 132-143.
12.
Garcia, G.E. (1991). Factors influencing the English reading test performance of Spanish-speaking Hispanic children. Reading Research Quarterly , 26, 371-392.
13.
Hammill, D., Pearson, N.A., & Wiederholt, J.L. (1996). Comprehensive test of nonverbal intelligence. Austin, TX: PRO-ED .
14.
Hasbrouck, J., Woldbeck, T., Ihnot, C., & Parker, R.I. (1999). One teacher's use of curriculum-based measurement: A changed opinion. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice , 14, 118-126.
15.
Holtzman, W.H., & Wilkinson, C.Y. (1991). Assessment of cognitive ability. In E.V. Hamayan & J. S. Damico (Eds.), Limiting bias in the assessment of bilingual students (pp. 247-280). Austin, TX : PRO-ED.
16.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004).
17.
Johnson, C., Lessem, A., Berquist, C., Carmichael, D., & Whitten, G. (n.d.). Disproportionate representation of minority children in special education. Retrieved September 22, 2005, from http://www.tea.state.tx.us/special.ed/pubs/dispreport.html
18.
Kaufman, A., & Kaufman, N. (1983). The Kaufman assessment battery for children. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service .
19.
Kester, E.S., & Peña, E. (2002). Language ability assessment of Spanish-English bilinguals: Future directions. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 8(4). Retrieved May 13, 2007, from http://www.pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=8&n=4
20.
Klinger, J., & Edwards, P.A. (2006). Cultural considerations with response to intervention models. Reading Research Quarterly, 41, 108-117.
21.
Klinger, J.K., Artiles, A.J., & Barletta, L.M. (2006). English language learners who struggle with reading: Language acquisition or LD? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 108-128.
22.
Marston, D., Muyskens, P., Lau, M., & Cantor, A. (2003). Problem solving model for decision-making with high-incidence disabilities: The Minneapolis experience. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18, 187-200.
23.
McCardle, P., Mele-McCarthy, J., Cutting, L., Leos, K., & D'Emilio, T. (2005). Learning disabilities in English language learners: Identifying the issues. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 20(1), 1-5.
24.
McCardle, P., Mele-McCarthy, J., & Leos, K. (2005). English language learners and learning disabilities: Research agenda and implications for practice. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 20(1), 68-78.
25.
Microsoft Corporation. (2004). Microsoft Excel (Ver. 11.2) [Computer software].
26.
Muñoz-Sandoval, A., & Woodcock, R.W. (1996). Batería Woodcock-Muñoz pruebas de aprovechamiento-revisada [Woodcock-Muñoz achievement test battery-revised] . Itasca, IL: Riverside.
27.
National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2005). Screening and assessment of young English-language learners: Supplement to the NAEYC and NAECS/SDE Joint Position Statement on Early Childhood Curriculum, Assessment, and Program Evaluation. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved on May 12, 2007, from http://www.naeyc.org/about/positions/ELL_Supplement.asp
28.
National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition. (2006). How has the English language learner (ELL) population changed in recent years? In Ask an expert: NCELA frequently asked questions . Retrieved May 15, 2007, from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/expert/faq/08leps.html
29.
Ochoa, A.M., Pacheco, R., & Omark, D.R. (1983). Addressing the learning disability needs of limited-English proficient students: Beyond language and race issues. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 6, 416-423.
30.
Ortiz, A. (2001). English language learners with special needs: Effective instructional strategies. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED469207)
31.
Ortiz, A.A., & Garcia, S.B. (1990). Using language assessment data for language and instructional planning for exceptional bilingual students. In A. L. Carrasquillo & R. E. Baecher (Eds.), Teaching the bilingual exceptional child (pp. 25-47). Norwood, NJ: Ablex .
32.
Ortiz, A.A., Garcia, S.B., Holtzman, W.H., Jr. , Polyzoi, E., Snell, W.E., Jr., Wilkinson , C.Y., et al. ( 1985). Characteristics of limited English proficient Hispanic students served in programs for the learning disabled: Implications for policy, practice and research. Austin, TX: University of Texas, Handicapped Minority Research Institute on Language Proficiency .
33.
Ortiz, A.A., & Kushner, M.I. (1997). Bilingualism and the possible impact on academic performance. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 6(3), 657-679.
34.
Ortiz, A.A., Wilkinson, C.Y., Robertson-Courtney, P., & Kushner, M.I. (2006). Considerations in implementing intervention assistance teams to support English language learners. Remedial and Special Education, 27(1), 53-63.
35.
Ortiz, A.A., & Yates, J.R. (2002). Considerations in the assessment of English language learners referred to special education. In A. J. Artiles & A. A. Ortiz (Eds.), English language learners with special education needs (pp. 65-85). Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.
36.
Palmer, D.J., Olivarez, A., Wilson, V.L., & Fordyce, T. (1989). Ethnicity and language dominance-Influence on the prediction of achievement based on intelligence test scores in nonreferred and referred samples. Learning Disability Quarterly, 12, 261-274.
37.
Rodriguez, J., & Carrasquillo, A.L. (1997). Hispanic limited English-proficient students with disabilities: A case study example. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8(3), 167-174.
38.
Satz, P., & Fletcher, J.M. (1988). Early identification of learning disabled children: An old problem revisited. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 824-829.
39.
Schoenbrodt, L., Kumin, L., & Sloan, J.M. (1997). Learning disabilities existing concomitantly with communication disorders. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 30(3), 264-281.
40.
Sternberg, R.J., & Grigorenko, E.L. (2002). Difference scores in the identification of children with learning disabilities: It's time to use a different method. Journal of School Psychology, 40(1), 65-83.
41.
Stuebing, K.K., Fletcher, J.M., LeDoux, J.M., Lyon, G.R., Shaywitz, S.E., & Shaywitz, B.A. (2002). Validity of IQdiscrepancy classifications of reading disabilities: A meta-analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 39, 469-518.
42.
Texas Education Agency. (2002). Adaptations for special populations. Subchapter AA: Commissioner's rules concerning special education services (Section 89.1040. Eligibility criteria). Retrieved April 30, 2007, from http://www.tea.state.tx.us/rules/tac/chapter089/ch089aa.html
43.
U.S. Department of Education. (2002). Twenty-fourth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.
44.
Wagner, R.K., Francis, D.J., & Morris, R.D. (2005). Identifying English language learners with learning disabilities: Key challenges and possible approaches. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 20(1), 6-15.
45.
Wechsler, D. (1991). Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (3rd ed.) San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
46.
Wilkinson, C.Y., Ortiz, A.A., Robertson, P.M., & Kushner, M.I. (2006). English language learners with reading-related learning disabilities: Linking data from multiple sources to make eligibility decisions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 129-141.
Zavala, J. & Mims, J. (1983). Identification of learning disabled bilingual Hispanic students. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 479-488.
50.
Zehler, A.M., & Fleischman, H.L. , Hopstock, P.J., Penzick , M.L., & Stephenson , T.G. (2003). Descriptive study of services to LEP students and LEP students with disabilities: Findings on special education LEP students [Special Topic Report 4]. Washington, DC: Development Associates. Retrieved May 12, 2007, from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/resabout/research/descriptivestudyfiles/special_ed4.pdf
