Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

This systematic review synthesizes conceptual and empirical research on remote work within Human Resource Development (HRD) to clarify how it has been defined, theorized, and examined. The review also identifies barriers, challenges, and success factors shaped by technological demands, boundary-management complexities, relational dynamics, and the organizational supports necessary for effective implementation. Further, across the literature, remote work yields diverse outcomes related to performance, engagement, psychological well-being, social connection, learning, and career growth. These findings demonstrate that remote work is not a uniform practice but a multidimensional configuration shaped by relational, technological, and organizational conditions. Building on these insights, the review outlines future research directions and practical implications for supporting effective, equitable, and sustainable remote work within HRD.

Keywords

remote work telework telecommuting work from home (WFH)systematic review

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Studies included in the review are marked with an asterisk (*).

* Abalkhail

J. M.

(2022). Leading through the COVID-19 crisis: A study of the public sector in the Arab Middle East. Human Resource Development International, 25(3), 342–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2022.2069428

* Arora

Suri

(2020). Redefining, relooking, redesigning, and reincorporating HRD in the post Covid 19 context and thereafter. Human Resource Development International, 23(4), 438–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2020.1780077

Bailey

D. E.

Kurland

N. B.

(2002). A review of telework research: Findings, new directions, and lessons for the study of modern work. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(4), 383–400. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.144

Bandura

Walters

R. H.

(1977). Social learning theory (1, pp. 141–154). Prentice Hall.

* Barhate

Hirudayaraj

Dirani

Barhate

Abadi

(2021). Career disruptions of married women in India: An exploratory investigation. Human Resource Development International, 24(4), 401–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2021.1904352

Baumeister

R. F.

Leary

M. R.

(2017). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation (pp. 57–89). Interpersonal Development.

* Bennett

E. E.

(2014a). Introducing new perspectives on virtual human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 16(3), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1177/152342231453209

Bennett

E. E.

(2009). Virtual HRD: The intersection of knowledge management, culture, and intranets. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 11(3), 362–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422309339724

10.

* Bennett

E. E.

(2014b). How an intranet provides opportunities for learning organizational culture: Implications for virtual HRD. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 16(3), 296–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422314532093

11.

Bennett

E. E.

McWhorter

R. R.

(2022). Dancing in the paradox: Virtual human resource development, online teaching, and learning. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 24(2), 99–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/15234223221079440

12.

Boyatzis

R. E.

(1982). The competent manager: A model for effective performance. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.4250040413

13.

Buffer . (2023). State of remote work 2023. https://buffer.com/state-of-remote-work/2023

14.

* Byrd

M. Y.

(2022). Creating a culture of inclusion and belongingness in remote work environments that sustains meaningful work. Human Resource Development International, 25(2), 145–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2022.2047252

15.

* Campuzano

M. V.

(2022). Virtually new: A case description of a health system’s new employee orientation COVID–19 response plan. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 34(2), 5–15. https://doi.org/10.1002/nha3.20346

16.

* Chai

D. S.

Park

(2022). The increased use of virtual teams during the Covid-19 pandemic: Implications for psychological well-being. Human Resource Development International, 25(2), 199–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2022.2047250

17.

* Cho

Kim

Lee

H. W.

(2024). How remote workers manage loneliness and performance: Virtual social interaction as an alternative resource management strategy. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 36(2), 155–174. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21547

18.

Choudhury

Foroughi

Larson

(2021). Work‐from‐anywhere: The productivity effects of geographic flexibility. Strategic Management Journal, 42(4), 655–683. https://doi.org/10.1002/smj.3251

19.

Clark

S. C.

(2000). Work/family border theory: A new theory of work/family balance. Human Relations, 53(6), 747–770. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726700536001

20.

Colella

Varma

(2001). The impact of subordinate disability on leader-member exchange relationships. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2), 304–315. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069457

21.

Cooper

C. D.

Kurland

N. B.

(2002). Telecommuting, professional isolation, and employee development in public and private organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(4), 511–532. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.145

22.

Deloitte . (2022). Connectivity and mobile trends 2022. https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/industry/telecommunications/connectivity-mobile-trends-survey-2022.html#introduction

23.

Demerouti

Derks

ten Brummelhuis

L. L.

Bakker

A. B.

(2014). New ways of working: Impact on working conditions, work–family balance, and wellbeing. In Korunka

Hoonakker

(Eds.), The impact of ICT on quality of working life (pp. 123–141). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8854-0_8

24.

Dulebohn

J. H.

Hoch

J. E.

(2017). Virtual teams in organizations. Human Resource Management Review, 27(4), 569–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2016.12.004

25.

Edwards

J. R.

Caplan

R. D.

Harrison

R. V.

(1998). Person-environment fit theory: Conceptual foundations, empirical evidence, and directions for future research. In Cooper

C. L.

(Ed.), Theories of organizational stress (pp. 28–67). Oxford.

26.

Flores

L. R.

(2024). Nike´s CEO says remote work is to blame for innovation slowdown. ThinkRemote. https://thinkremote.com/nikes-ceo-says-remote-work-is-to-blame-for-innovation-slowdown/

27.

Franken

Bentley

Shafaei

Farr-Wharton

Onnis

L. A.

Omari

(2021). Forced flexibility and remote working: Opportunities and challenges in the new normal. Journal of Management and Organization, 27(6), 1131–1149. https://doi.org/10.1017/jmo.2021.40

28.

Gajendran

R. S.

Harrison

D. A.

(2007). The good, the bad, and the unknown about telecommuting: Meta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(6), 1524–1541. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.1524

29.

Garavan

(2023). Mapping the next phase of growth for HRDR. Human Resource Development Review, 22(4), 475–493. https://doi.org/10.1177/15344843231213205

30.

Golden

T. D.

Veiga

J. F.

Dino

R. N.

(2008). The impact of professional isolation on teleworker job performance and turnover intentions: Does time spent teleworking, interacting face-to-face, or having access to communication-enhancing technology matter? Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(6), 1412–1421. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012722

31.

Graen

G. B.

Uhl-Bien

(1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 219–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(95)90036-5

32.

Grandey

A. A.

Cropanzano

(1999). The conservation of resources model applied to work–family conflict and strain. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54(2), 350–370. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1998.1666

33.

Grant

C. A.

Wallace

L. M.

Spurgeon

P. C.

(2013). An exploration of the psychological factors affecting remote e‐worker's job effectiveness, well‐being and work‐life balance. Employee Relations, 35(5), 527–546. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-08-2012-0059

34.

Gregory

A. T.

Denniss

A. R.

(2018). An introduction to writing narrative and systematic reviews—Tasks, tips and traps for aspiring authors. Heart Lung & Circulation, 27(7), 893–898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hlc.2018.03.027

35.

Greimel

N. S.

Kanbach

D. K.

Chelaru

(2023). Virtual teams and transformational leadership: An integrative literature review and avenues for further research. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge, 8(2), 100351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jik.2023.100351

36.

(2024). FWAs disrupt creativity and innovation, says Nike CEO. HRM Asia. https://hrmasia.com/fwas-disrupt-creativity-and-innovation-says-nike-ceo/

37.

Hacker

J. V.

Johnson

Saunders

Thayer

A. L.

(2019). Trust in virtual teams: A multidisciplinary review and integration. Australasian Journal of Information Systems, 23, 1–36. https://doi.org/10.3127/ajis.v23i0.1757

38.

* Hammack-Brown

Nimon

K. F.

Ellinger

A. D.

(2024). Examining measurement invariance of a managerial coaching scale across traditional and virtual employee groups: Implications for expanding managerial coaching research. Human Resource Development International, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2024.2361181

39.

Han

S. H.

Chae

Han

S. J.

Yoon

S. W.

(2017). Conceptual organization and identity of HRD: Analyses of evolving definitions, influence, and connections. Human Resource Development Review, 16(3), 294–319. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484317719822

40.

* Han

S. J.

Hazard

(2022). Shared leadership in virtual teams at work: Practical strategies and research suggestions for human resource development. Human Resource Development Review, 21(3), 300–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/15344843221093376

41.

* Hart

R. K.

(2016). Informal virtual mentoring for team leaders and members: Emergence, content, and impact. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 18(3), 352–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422316645886

42.

Hirudayaraj

Matić

(2021). Leveraging human resource development practice to enhance organizational creativity: A multilevel conceptual model. Human Resource Development Review, 20(2), 172–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484321992476

43.

Hobfoll

S. E.

(1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.44.3.513

44.

Hobfoll

S. E.

Halbesleben

Neveu

J. P.

Westman

(2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5(1), 103–128. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640

45.

* Huang

W. H. D.

Han

S. H.

Park

U. Y.

Seo

J. J.

(2010). Managing employees’ motivation, cognition, and performance in virtual workplaces: The blueprint of a game-based adaptive performance platform (GAPP). Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 700–714. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422310394794

46.

* Jackson

M. K.

(2022). Working remotely: How organizational leaders and HRD practitioners used the experiential learning theory during the COVID-19 pandemic? New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 34(2), 44–48. https://doi.org/10.1002/nha3.20351

47.

Johnson

L. C.

Andrey

Shaw

S. M.

(2007). Mr. Dithers comes to dinner: Telework and the merging of women's work and home domains in Canada. Gender, Place & Culture, 14(2), 141–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690701213701

48.

Kaduk

Genadek

Kelly

E. L.

Moen

(2019). Involuntary vs. voluntary flexible work: Insights for scholars and stakeholders. Community, Work & Family, 22(4), 412–442. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2019.1616532

49.

* Kim

K. Y.

Ugwuanyi

(2024). Social distancing and workplace relationships in South Korea: Exploring changes in negative and positive affective exchanges at work before and during COVID-19. Human Resource Development International, 27(1), 83–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2023.2217732

50.

Kolb

A. Y.

Kolb

D. A.

(2009). Experiential learning theory: A dynamic, holistic approach to management learning, education, and development. In Armstrong

S. J.

Fukami

(Eds.), The SAGE handbook of management learning, education and development (pp. 42–68). Sage Publications.

51.

Kollmann

Hensellek

Stöckmann

Kensbock

J. M.

Peschl

(2020). How management teams foster the transactive memory system–entrepreneurial orientation link: A domino effect model of positive team processes. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 14(4), 683–710. https://doi.org/10.1002/sej.1365

52.

Krehl

E. H.

Büttgen

(2022). Uncovering the complexities of remote leadership and the usage of digital tools during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative diary study. German Journal of Human Resource Management, 36(3), 325–352. https://doi.org/10.1177/23970022221083697

53.

* Kumar

Priyadarshi

Garg

(2024). Bibliometric analysis of remote working: 20-year Literature Review. Human Resource Development Review, 24(3), 15344843241305920. https://doi.org/10.1177/15344843241305920

54.

Lautsch

B. A.

Kossek

E. E.

Eaton

S. C.

(2009). Supervisory approaches and paradoxes in managing telecommuting implementation. Human Relations, 62(6), 795–827. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726709104543

55.

Le Boterf

(1997). De la Compétence à la Navigation Professionnelle. Les Éditions d’Organisation, Francia.

56.

Lim

D. H.

Lee

J. Y.

Park

(2024). The metaverse in the workplace: Possibilities and implications for human resource development. Human Resource Development Review, 23(2), 164–198. https://doi.org/10.1177/15344843231217174

57.

Lund

Madgavkar

Manyika

Smit

Ellingrud

Meaney

Robinson

(2021). The future of work after COVID-19. McKinsey Global Institute. https://www.mckinsey.com/featuredinsights/future-of-work/the-future-of-work-after-covid–19

58.

* Madsen

S. R.

(2003). The effects of home‐based teleworking on work‐family conflict. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 14(1), 35–58. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.1049

59.

* Margheritti

Picco

Gragnano

Dell’aversana

Miglioretti

(2024). How to promote teleworkers’ job satisfaction? The Telework Quality Model and its application in small, medium, and large companies. Human Resource Development International, 27(4), 481–500. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2023.2244705

60.

* Martins

Gomes

J. F. D. S.

Silva

(2024). Distancing skills in remote work: Narratives about HRD managers support organisations. European Journal of Training and Development, 49(7–8), 689–707. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-05-2024-0067

61.

McClelland

D. C.

(1973). Testing for competence rather than for “intelligence.”. American Psychologist, 28(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034092

62.

* McDonald

K. S.

Hite

L. M.

O’Connor

K. W.

(2022). Developing sustainable careers for remote workers. Human Resource Development International, 25(2), 182–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2022.2047148

63.

McLagan

P. A.

(1989). Models for HRD practice. Training & Development Journal, 43(9), 49–60.

64.

McWhorter

R. R.

(2023). Virtual human resource development: Definitions, challenges, and opportunities. Human Resource Development Review, 22(4), 582–601. https://doi.org/10.1177/15344843231188820

65.

* Michaud

D. C.

Conceição

S. C.

(2023). Telecommuters working remotely in interdependent virtual teams: The lines between work and home. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 35(1), 32–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/19394225231171578

66.

* Nafukho

F. M.

Graham

C. M.

Muyia

H. M. A.

(2010). Harnessing and optimal utilization of human capital in virtual workplace environments. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 648–664. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422310394791

67.

Niles

S. G.

Yoon

H. J.

Balin

Amundson

(2010). Using a hope-centered model of career development in challenging times. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal, 4(34), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.17066/pdrd.86654

68.

Nilles

J. M.

(1988). Traffic reduction by telecommuting: A status review and selected bibliography. Transportation Research Part A: General, 22(4), 301–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-2607(88)90008-8

69.

Orhan

M. A.

(2017). The evolution of the virtuality phenomenon in organizations: A critical literature review. Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review, 5(4), 171–188. https://doi.org/10.15678/eber.2017.050408

70.

* Park

Jeong

Chai

D. S.

(2021). Remote e-workers’ psychological well-being and career development in the era of COVID-19: Challenges, success factors, and the roles of HRD professionals. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 23(3), 222–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/15234223211017849

71.

* Pass

Ridgway

(2022). An informed discussion on the impact of COVID-19 and ‘enforced’ remote working on employee engagement. Human Resource Development International, 25(2), 254–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2022.2048605

72.

Rupcic

(2024). Working and learning in a hybrid workplace: Challenges and opportunities. The Learning Organization, 31(2), 276–283. https://doi.org/10.1108/TLO-02-2024-303

73.

* Shirmohammadi

W. C.

Beigi

(2022a). Remote work and work-life balance: Lessons learned from the covid-19 pandemic and suggestions for HRD practitioners. Human Resource Development International, 25(2), 163–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2022.2047380

74.

* Shirmohammadi

ChanAu

Beigi

(2022b). Antecedents and outcomes of work-life balance while working from home: A review of the research conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic. Human Resource Development Review, 21(4), 473–516. https://doi.org/10.1177/15344843221125834

75.

Siddhartha

Chaitra Sai Malika

(2016). Telecommuting and its effects in urban planning. International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology, 5(10), 448–453. https://doi.org/10.17577/IJERTV5IS100350

76.

* Simmonds

Zammit Lupi

A. M.

(2010). The matching process in e‐mentoring: A case study in luxury hotels. Journal of European Industrial Training, 34(4), 300–316. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090591011039063

77.

Staples

D. S.

Hulland

J. S.

Higgins

C. A.

(1999). A self-efficacy theory explanation for the management of remote workers in virtual organizations. Organization Science, 10(6), 758–776. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.10.6.758

78.

* Varma

Jaiswal

Pereira

Kumar

Y. L. N.

(2022). Leader-member exchange in the age of remote work. Human Resource Development International, 25(2), 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2022.2047873

79.

Varma

Zilic

Katou

Blajic

Jukic

(2020). Supervisor-subordinate relationships and employee performance appraisals: A multi-source investigation in Croatia. Employee Relations: The International Journal, 43(1), 45–62. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-06-2019-0248

80.

Wiener

(1950). Cybernetics. Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 3(7), 2–4. https://doi.org/10.2307/3822945

81.

World Economic Forum . (2023). The future of jobs report 2023. https://www.weforum.org/publications/the-future-of-jobs-report-2023/

82.

* Yarberry

Sims

(2021). The impact of COVID-19-prompted virtual/remote work environments on employees’ career development: Social learning theory, belongingness, and self-empowerment. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 23(3), 237–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/15234223211017850

83.

* Yeo

R. K.

(2022). Breaking the silence of psychological impact while working from home during COVID: Implications for workplace learning. Human Resource Development International, 25(2), 114–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2022.2047149

84.

* Yoon

H. J.

Chang

Y. L.

Sadique

Al Balushi

(2021). Mechanisms for hopeful employee career development in COVID-19: A hope-action theory perspective. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 23(3), 203–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/15234223211017848

Toward the “New Normal”: A Systematic Review of Remote Work and Implications for Human Resource Development (HRD)

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References