This article presents and explores a framework of self-directed leadership development (SDLD) to advance conceptual understanding and practical applications for self-development approaches to development of leaders in organizations. Drawing on a diversified literature associated with experiential learning, emotion research, and social cognitive theories of change, the nature of self-development is explored. It is argued that underpinning effective self-development is the integrated operation of three metaskills—skills that are required for the development of other skills—relating to one’s ability to manage emotional reactions to feedback, to carry out effectively the practice of self-reflection, and to enact self-regulatory processes for development. The SDLD framework extends formal organization-based leadership-development practices and integrates multiple processes to aid leaders and human resource development (HRD) practitioners in the promotion and enactment of leadership self-development. The framework also provides guidance for HRD research on self-development and a number of research implications are presented.
AlldredgeM.JohnsonC.StolzfusJ.VicereA. (2003). Leadership developoment at 3M: New processes, new techniques, new growth. Human Resource Planning, 26(3), 45-55.
2.
AntonacopoulouE. P. (2000). Employee development through self-development in three retail banks. Personnel Review, 29, 491-508.
3.
ArgyrisC. (1976). Theories of action that inhibit individual learning. American Psychologist, 31, 638.
4.
ArmenakisA. A.HarrisS. G.MossholderK. W. (1993). Creating readiness for organizational change. Human Relations, 46, 681.
5.
AshfordS. J.BlattR.VandeWalleD. (2003). Reflections on the looking glass: A review of research on feedback-seeking behavior in organizations. Journal of Management, 29, 773-799.
BaldwinT. T.FordJ. K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research. Personnel psychology, 41(1), 63-105.
8.
BanduraA. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122-147.
9.
BanduraA. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 248-287.
10.
BaumeisterR. F. (1997). Esteem threat, self-regulatory breakdown, and emotional distress as factors in self-defeating behavior. Review of General Psychology, 1(2), 145-174.
11.
BellB. S.FordJ. K. (2007). Reactions to skill assessment: The forgotten factor in explaining motivation to learn. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 18(1), 33-62.
12.
BeringsM. G. M. C.PoellR. F.SimonsP. (2008). Dimensions of on the job learning styles. Applied Psychology, 57, 417-440.
13.
BoltonG. (2010). Reflective practice: Writing and professional development. London, UK: SAGE.
14.
BoyceL. A.ZaccaroS. J.WisecarverM. Z. (2010). Propensity for self-development of leadership attributes: Understanding, predicting, and supporting performance of leader self-development. Leadership Quarterly, 21(1), 159-178.
15.
CaprettaC.ClarkL. P.DaiG. (2008). Executive derailment: Three cases in point and how to prevent it. Global Business and Organizational Excellence, 27(3), 48-56.
16.
CarverC. C.ScheierM. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
17.
ChoiM.RuonaW. E. A. (2011). Individual readiness for organizational change and its implications for human resource and organization development. Human Resource Development Review, 10(1), 46.
18.
CopeJ. P.WattsG. (2000). Learning by doing—An exploration of experience, critical incidents and reflection in entrepreneurial learning. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, 6(3), 104-124.
19.
CormierS. M.HagmanJ. D. (1987). Transfer of learning: Contemporary research and applications. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
20.
CoutuD.KauffmanC. (2009). The realities of executive coaching. Harvard Business Review, 87(1), 6-7.
21.
CronW. L.SlocumJ. W.VandeWalleD.FuF. Q. (2005). The role of goal orientation on negative emotions and goal setting when initial performance falls short of one’s performance goal. Human Performance, 18(1), 55-80.
22.
DaudelinM. W. (1996, Autumn). Learning from experience through reflection. Organizational Dynamics, 36-48.
23.
DayD. V. (2001). Leadership development: A review in context. Leadership Quaterly, 11, 581-613.
24.
De Déa RoglioK.LightG. (2009). Executive MBA programs: The development of the reflective executive. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 8(2), 156-173.
25.
De MeuseK. P.DaiG.HallenbeckG. S. (2010). Learning agility: A construct whose time has come. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 62(2), 119.
26.
De RueD. S.WellmanN. (2009). Developing leaders via experience: The role of developmental challenge, learning orientation, and feedback availability. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94, 859.
27.
DenisonD. R.HooijbergR.QuinnR. E. (1995). Paradox and performance: Toward a theory of behavioral complexity in managerial leadership. Organization Science, 6, 524-540.
28.
DeweyJ. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relations of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston, MA: D. C. Heath.
29.
DuffyA. (2008). Guided reflection: A discussion of the essential components. British Journal of Nursing (BJN), 17, 334-339.
30.
DunningD.HeathC.SulsJ. M. (2004). Flawed self-assessment. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5(3), 69.
31.
DuvalT. S.SilviaP. J. (2002). Self-awareness, probability of improvement, and the self-serving bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 49.
32.
DweckC. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040.
33.
DweckC. S.ChiuC.HongY. (1995). Implicit theories and their role in judgments and reactions: A word from two perspectives. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 267-285.
34.
DweckC. S.LeggettE. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological review, 95, 256-273.
35.
EllingerA. D. (2004). The concept of self-directed learning and its implications for human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6(2), 158.
36.
ElliottE. S.DweckC. S. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(1), 5-12.
37.
EllisS.MendelR.NirM. (2006). Learning from successful and failed experience: The moderating role of kind of after-event review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 669-680.
38.
EnosM. D.KehrhahnM. T.BellA. (2003). Informal learning and the transfer of learning: How managers develop proficiency. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 14, 369-387.
39.
FeldmanD. C.LankauM. J. (2005). Executive coaching: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 31, 829.
40.
FlanaganJ. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327-358.
41.
FranzN. (2010). Catalyzing employee change with transformative learning. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 21(1), 113-118.
42.
GeorgeJ. M. (2000). Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence. Human Relations, 53, 1027-1055.
43.
GhoshalS.ArnzenB.BrownfieldS. (1992). A learning alliance between business and business schools: Executive education as a platform for partnership. California Management Review, 35(1), 50-67.
44.
GodwinJ. L.NeckC. P.HoughtonJ. D. (1999). The impact of thought self-leadership on individual goal performance. Journal of Management Development, 18(2), 153-169.
45.
GollwitzerP. M. (1990). Action phases and mind-sets. Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: Foundations of Social Behavior, 2, 53-92.
46.
GrantA. M.CurtayneL.BurtonG. (2009). Executive coaching enhances goal attainment, resilience and workplace well-being: A randomised controlled study. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 396-407.
47.
GrayD. E. (2007). Facilitating management learning: Developing critical reflection through reflective tools. Management Learning, 38, 495.
48.
GrossJ. J.OliverP. J. (2002). Wise emotion regulation. In BarrettL. F.SaloveyP. (Eds.), The wisdom of feelings: Psychological processes in emotional intelligence (pp. 297-318). New York, NY: Guildford.
49.
GrovesK. S.McEnrueM. P.ShenW. (2008). Developing and measuring the emotional intelligence of leaders. Journal of Management Development, 27, 225-250.
50.
GuentherC. L.AlickeM. D. (2008). Self-enhancement and belief perseverance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 706-712.
51.
HallierJ.ButtsS. (1999). Employers’ discovery of training: Self-development, employability and the rhetoric of partnership. Employee Relations, 21(1), 80-95.
52.
HardlessC.NilssonM.NuldenU. (2005). “Copernicus”: Experiencing a failing project for reflection and learning. Management Learning, 36(2), 181-217.
53.
HarrisS. G.ColeM. S. (2007). A stages of change perspective on managers’ motivation to learn in a leadership development context. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 20, 774-793.
54.
Hernez-BroomeG.HughesR. L. (2004). Leadership development: Past, present, and future. Human Resource Planning, 27, 24-32.
55.
HigsonM.WilsonJ. P. (1995). Implementing personal development plans: A model for trainers, managers and supervisors. Industrial and Commercial Training, 27(6), 25-29.
56.
HoganJ.HoganR.KaiserR. B. (2011). Management derailment. In APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 555-575). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
57.
HoytC. L.AguilarL.KaiserC. R.BlascovichJ.LeeK. (2007). The self-protective and undermining effects of attributional ambiguity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 884-893.
58.
IlgenD.DavisC. (2000). Bearing bad news: Reactions to negative performance feedback. Applied Psychology, 49, 550-565.
59.
IliesR.JudgeT. A. (2005). Goal regulation across time: The effects of feedback and affect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 453-467.
60.
IllerisK. (2007). What do we actually mean by experiential learning?Human Resource Development Review, 6(1), 84.
61.
JonesN. P.PapadakisA. A.HoganC. M.StraumanT. J. (2009). Over and over again: Rumination, reflection, and promotion goal failure and their interactive effects on depressive symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 254-259.
62.
KanferR. (2005). Self-regulation research in work and I/O psychology. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 54(2), 186-191.
63.
KarolyP. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. Annual review of psychology, 44(1), 23-52.
64.
KingZ. (2004). Career self-management: Its nature, causes and consequences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1), 112-133.
65.
KlugerA.deNisiA. (1996). Effects of feedback intervention on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 254-284.
66.
KnowlesM. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. New York, NY: Associated Press.
67.
KolbD. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
68.
LathamG. P.LockeE. A. (1991). Self-regulation through goal setting. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 212-247.
69.
LombardoM. M.RudermanM. N.McCauleyC. D. (1988). Explanations of success and derailment in upper-level management positions. Journal of Business and Psychology, 2(3), 199-216.
70.
LondonM.DiamanteT. (2002). Technology-focused expansive professionals: Developing continuous learning in the high-technology sector. Human Resource Development Review, 1, 500-524.
71.
LondonM.SmitherJ. W. (1999). Empowered self-development and continuous learning. Human Resource Management, 38(1), 3-15.
72.
LordR. G.DiefendorffJ. M.SchmidtA. M.HallR. J. (2010). Self-regulation at work. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 543-568.
73.
LordR. G.HallR. J. (2005). Identity, deep structure and the development of leadership skill. Leadership Quarterly, 16, 591-615.
74.
LyubomirskyS.SousaL.DickerhoofR. (2006). The costs and benefits of writing, talking, and thinking about life’s triumphs and defeats. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 692-708.
75.
ManzC. (1986). Self-leadership: Towards an expanded theory of self-influence processes in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 11, 585-600.
76.
MarsickV. J.WatkinsK. E. (1990). Informal and incidental learning in the workplace. London, UK: Routledge.
77.
MarxR. D. (1982). Relapse prevention for managerial training: A model for maintenance of behavior change. Academy of Management Review, 7, 433-441.
78.
MaurerT. J. (2002). Employee learning and development orientation: Toward an integrative model of involvement in continuous learning. Human Resource Development Review, 1(1), 9.
79.
McCallM. W.LombardoM. M.MorrisonA. M. (1988). Lessons of experience: How successful executives develop on the job. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
80.
MoonJ. A. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. London, UK: Routledge.
81.
MuravenM.BaumeisterR. F. (2000). Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle?Psychological Bulletin, 126, 247.
82.
MuravenM.TiceD. M.BaumeisterR. F. (1998). Self-control as limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 774-789.
83.
OsmondJ.DarlingtonY. (2005). Reflective analysis: Techniques for facilitating reflection. Australian Social Work, 58(1), 3-14.
84.
PavlovichK. (2007). The development of reflective practice through student journals. Higher Education Research & Development, 26, 281-295.
85.
PolivyJ.HermanC. P. (2002). If at first you don’t succeed: False hopes of self-change. American Psychologist, 57, 677.
86.
PriceA. (2004). Encouraging reflection and critical thinking in practice. Nursing Standard, 18(47), 46-52.
87.
ReynoldsM. (1998). Reflection and critical reflection in management learning. Management Learning, 29(2), 183-200.
88.
RuggsE. N.MartinezL. R.HeblM. R. (2011). How individuals and organizations can reduce interpersonal discrimination. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(1), 29-42.
89.
RyanA. M.BrutusS.GregurasG. J.HakelM. D. (2000). Receptivity to assessment-based feedback for management development. Journal of Management Development, 19, 252-276.
90.
SchönD. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York, NY: Basic Books.
91.
SchwarzN.CloreG. L. (1996). Feelings and phenomenal experiences. In HigginsT.KruglonskiA. W. (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 433-465). New York, NY: Guilford.
92.
SchwarzerR. (2001). Social-cognitive factors in changing health-related behaviors. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(2), 47-51.
93.
SeibertK. W.DaudelinM. W. (1999). The role of reflection in managerial learning: Theory, research, and practice. Westport, CT: Quorum.
94.
SeoM. G. (2003). Overcoming emotional barriers, political obstacles, and control imperatives in the action-science approach to individual and organizational learning. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2(1), 7-21.
95.
ShermanD. K.CohenG. L. (2006). The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 183-242.
96.
SilviaP. J.EichstaedtJ.PhillipsA. G. (2005). Are rumination and reflection types of self-focused attention?Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 871-881.
97.
SpreitzerG. M. (2006). Leadership development lessons from posititive organizational studies. Organizational Dynamics, 35, 305-315.
98.
SteelmanL. A.RutkowskiK. A. (2004). Moderators of employee reactions to negative feedback. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 19(1), 6-18.
99.
SwannW. B. (1992). Seeking “truth,” finding despair: Some unhappy consequences of a negative self-concept. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(1), 15-18.
100.
TamkinP. (1996). Practical applications for personal development plans. Management Development Review, 9(7), 32-36.
101.
ThorpeK. (2004). Reflective learning journals: From concept to practice. Reflective Practice, 5, 327-343.
102.
TropeY.GerveyB.BolgerN. (2003). The role of perceived control in overcoming defensive self-evaluations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 407-419.
103.
TurnbullW.MullinsP. (2007). Socratic dialogue as personal reflection. Reflective Practice, 8(1), 93-108.
104.
TysonD. F.Linnenbrink-GarciaD. F. T. L.HillN. E. (2009). Regulating debilitating emotions in the context of performance: Achievement goal orientations, achievement-elicited emotions, and socialization contexts. Human Development, 52, 329-356.
105.
van WoerkomM. (2008). Critical reflection and related higher-level conceptualizations of learning: Realistic or idealistic?Human Resource Development Review, 7(3), 3-12.
106.
VancouverJ. B.DayD. V. (2005). Industrial and organisation research on self regulation: From constructs to applications. Applied Psychology, 54(2), 155-185.
107.
WeickK. E.SutcliffeK. L.ObstfeldD. (2005). Organizing and the process of sensemaking. Organization Science, 16, 409-421.
108.
WilsonT. D.DunnE. W. (2004). Self-knowledge: Its limits, value, and potential for improvement. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 493-518.
109.
WoodR. E.MentoA. J.LockeE. A. (1987). Task complexity as a moderator of goal effects: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 416.
110.
ZhangL. (2006). Thinking styles and the big five personality traits revisited. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1177-1187.
111.
ZimmermanB. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In BoekaertsM.PintrichP. R.ZeidnerM. (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13-39). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
112.
ZimmermanB. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(2), 64-70.
113.
ZimmermanB. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal, 45(1), 166.
