Abstract
Polyglycolic acid (PGA) is a key bioabsorbable material for load-bearing textile medical implants, but the mechanical deterioration of PGA fibers inevitably takes place in textile processing via abrasion and plastic deformation owing to high crystallinity and high moduli. This paper proposes a low-damage knitting strategy by regulating yarn tension and optimizing knit stitches. A PGA fully drawn yarn of tenacity 5.62 cN/dtex was employed to do abrasion test, knitting while recording dynamic tension, and morphological and tensile tests on the knitted fabrics. The abrasion test results show that PGA fibers have more fiber breakages and a greater extension (0.673%) than those of PET fibers (0.354%) through 100 cycles of wearing on a grinding wheel of grit size W40 ranging from 28–40 μm at a tension of 0.25 cN/dtex. Yarn knitting tension (YKT) records reveal that a yarn input tension of 2.5 cN mitigates YKT fluctuations, reducing the yarn strength loss to 18.13% for plain stitch and 10.31% for interlock stitch. The morphologies of the knitted fabrics indicate that fiber damage intensifies with decreasing loop length and is severer in plain stitch than interlock stitch. Optimization of knit stitch by adjusting sinking depth (NP value) demonstrates that the plain stitch at NP=12.0 and the interlock stitch at NP=10.5 result in high breaking force in the walewise direction, achieving a good balance between loop length and fiber damage to gain increasing fabric strength. This integrated approach of tension regulation and stitch optimization provides a reliable method for manufacturing high-strength PGA knitted implants.
Keywords
1. Introduction
Polyglycolic acid (PGA) has excellent biocompatibility, controllable degradability, and favorable processability. Beyond its well-known use in surgical sutures, PGA finds increasing applications in diverse biomedical fields, such as oral biomaterials,1–5 regenerative scaffolds,6–10 guided tissue regeneration membranes,11,12 controlled release carriers,13–15 and bone grafts.16–19
Bioabsorbable polymeric materials for medical implants must maintain the required structural strength throughout their functional service life, but the rapid degradation of PGA can lead to a premature loss of structural support. Two primary strategies for performance enhancement involve retarding material degradation to mitigate strength loss and increasing the implant’s initial mechanical strength to establish a higher baseline. Existing research primarily focuses on retarding degradation through material-focused approaches like synthetic modification, copolymerization, and processing optimization.20–22 The effect of textile processing on the initial mechanical strength is equally crucial. The high-crystallinity PGA fibers produced by melt spinning can achieve tenacity up to 6.45–7.80 cN/dtex. 23 Fabricating the PGA fibers into textile structures further enhances the initial mechanical strength of PGA implants to 67–85 MPa, meeting requirements for applications such as articular cartilage tissue engineering.24,25 Textile-structured absorbable implants exhibit exceptional flexibility, elasticity, and structural tailorability,26,27 enabling them to replicate the hierarchical, anisotropic, and strain-stiffening properties of native tissues. 28 Knitted architectures, commonly used in PGA-based implants, provide a highly porous and interconnected network.29–32 It is considered that this looped configuration significantly increases surface area, which could promote cell adhesion, migration, and proliferation, while simultaneously ensuring excellent elastic recovery and high tensile strength.
High-crystallinity PGA fibers exhibit high intrinsic strength, but the knitting process inevitably causes fiber damage from dynamic yarn knitting tension (YKT), bending, and abrasion during their passage around knitting elements, resulting in a reduction in mechanical strength.33–35 In preliminary weaving and knitting experiments, PGA fibers are more prone to surface damage, such as fiber hairiness, surface abrasion, and even single-fiber breakage, compared to polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibers. This observed inferior abrasion resistance compromises the initial mechanical strength of resulting PGA knitted implants. The dynamic fluctuating YKT is a key factor attributed to yarn damage. It was demonstrated that YKT induces stress concentration on the surface fibers of yarns, leading to irreversible fatigue damage and mechanical property deterioration. 36 Zhao et al. reported that dynamic tension compensation effectively mitigated YKT fluctuations, thereby reducing yarn damage and improving fabric quality. 37 Additionally, previous studies confirmed that systematic optimization of sinking depth (loop length), contact area, run-in ratio, and take-up value to reduce contact pressure between fibers and needle hooks enables low-damage knitting of high-performance fibers.38,39 Current research has not effectively addressed the critical technical challenge of achieving high-strength PGA knitted implants while reducing fiber strength loss in the knitting process.
This work develops a low-damage knitting technique for PGA fibers using a computerized flat knitting machine, aimed at fabricating implants of high initial strength for adequate structural support in early-stage tissue healing. The abrasion resistance of PGA fibers is first evaluated and compared with that of PET fibers. The influence of key processing parameters, including yarn input tension (YIT), knit stitch, and sinking depth, on fiber damage and the mechanical properties of the resultant fabrics is systematically investigated. Based on the experimental results, an optimal set of knitting parameters was identified to achieve low-damage fabrication. Furthermore, YKT was recorded using a dynamic tension acquisition system, allowing the correlation among knitting parameters, tension characteristics, and fiber damage to be established and the underlying mechanism of low-damage knitting to be unraveled.
2. Experimental sections
2.1. Materials
The PGA fully drawn yarn (FDY) used in this study was prepared via melt spinning of pellets (melting point: 222–224°C), produced by Sinopec Shanghai Research Institute of Petrochemical Technology (Shanghai, China). The single yarn had a linear density of 52 dtex/28f, a tenacity of 5.62 cN/dtex, and an elongation at break of 18%. For the abrasion test, a zero-twist 3-ply yarn of 156 dtex/84f, 4.41 cN/dtex and 15.54% elongation at break was prepared. For knitting, a zero-twist 6-ply yarn of 312 dtex/168f, 3.95 cN/dtex and 20.14% elongation at break was used. The 156 dtex yarn serves as a fundamental unit for evaluating intrinsic properties. The 312 dtex knitting yarn, consisting of two such units, was used to match the E10.2 machine gauge.
The PET industrial yarn used for comparison purpose was purchased from Hengli Chemical Fiber Co., Ltd (Jiangsu, China). The yarn had a linear density of 234 dtex/48f, a tenacity of 6.88 cN/dtex and an elongation at break of 23.35%.
2.2. Yarn abrasion and tensile property testing
The abrasion resistance of the PGA and PET yarns was evaluated using a yarn full life cycle tester (CFLCA100, Suzhou Changfeng Textile Mechatronical Technology Co., Ltd., Jiangsu, China). As shown in Figure 1, the yarn was threaded onto the instrument with a yarn separator, resulting in a total test length of 8068.35 mm per cycle. A cylindrical metal grinding wheel (diameter: 25 mm; thickness: 30 mm; grit size: W40) served as the abradant. The test was conducted at a linear speed of 30 m/min and a grinding wheel speed of 1 m/min in a counter-rotating configuration. Each yarn type underwent 100 abrasion cycles under a low tension (24.5 cN, applied with a 50 g weight) and a high tension (approximately 0.25 cN/dtex, 39.2 cN applied with an 80 g weight for PGA, and 58.8 cN applied with a 120 g weight for PET). Yarn extension and hairiness index were recorded during abrasion by the built-in rangefinder and camera, respectively. The hairiness index was defined as the cumulative number of protruding fibers longer than 1 mm along one edge within a 1-meter planar yarn view, expressed in roots/m. Photograph of the yarn abrasion resistance test setup: A is driving roller, B is yarn separator, C is grinding wheel, D is rangefinder, E is tension weight, and F is hairiness camera.
The tensile properties of yarns before and after knitting were measured according to BS EN 13895:2003 using a universal mechanical tester (YG028, Ningbo Dahe Instrument Co., Ltd., Ningbo, Zhejiang, China) under controlled conditions of 20°C and 65% relative humidity. The tests were conducted with a gauge length of 100 mm, a pre-tension of 0.05 ± 0.005 cN/dtex, and an extension rate of 100 mm/min. The yarn strength loss rate (L
s
, %) was calculated as:
2.3. Knitting process and dynamic tension recording
Knitting plans and specifications of PGA knitted fabrics.
The dynamic yarn knitting tension testing system is shown in Figure 2. YKT was recorded using a tension sensor (TS1-200-A2, SCHMIDT Technology GmbH, Germany) connected to a portable data acquisition unit (MI-7008D, Hangzhou ECON Technologies Co., Ltd., Zhejiang, China). The sensor was positioned close to the yarn guide without altering the standard yarn path. The tension fluctuation amplitude was calculated as the difference between the maximum and minimum tension values within a single knitting cycle (one carriage reciprocation), averaged over ten consecutive cycles. Photograph of the dynamic knitting tension testing system: (a) the overall tension testing system; (b) the yarn threading configuration. Key components are: A is data acquisition unit, B is tension sensor, and C is electronic yarn tensioner.
2.4. Morphological and fabric tensile characterization
The morphologies of the knitted fabrics were examined using a digital optical microscope (602K-T, Beiyinhu Optics (Shenzhen) Co., Ltd., Guangdong, China). To observe fiber damage, yarns were carefully unraveled from the fabrics, and their morphologies were characterized using a field-emission scanning electron microscope (SU8010, Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation, Tokyo, Japan).
The tensile properties of the PGA fabrics, including the breaking force in both the walewise and coursewise directions, were measured according to standard ISO 13934-1:2013, “Textiles — Tensile properties of fabrics — Part 1: Determination of maximum force and elongation at maximum force using the strip method”. The tests were conducted by using the YG028 mechanical tester under controlled conditions of 20°C and 65% relative humidity. For each sample, the test was repeated five times, and the average value was calculated. The entire fabric was cut into multiple strips, each measuring 100 mm in length and 25 mm in width. The specimens were gripped with a gauge length of 50 mm in a relaxed state and tested at a constant extension rate of 100 mm/min.
2.5. Statistical analysis
Experimental data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. Comparisons among multiple groups were conducted by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). When the ANOVA indicated a significant difference, post hoc pairwise comparisons were carried out using Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) test. The statistical significance level is set at α = 0.05. Significance levels are denoted as *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001, and ****p < 0.0001.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Abrasion resistance of PGA yarns
During the knitting process, PGA yarns inevitably undergo friction with machine components, leading to fiber damage. An understanding of the abrasion resistance of PGA yarns is essential for reducing fiber damage in knitting. PET industrial yarn is widely recognized for excellent knittability, sharing material similarities with PGA. Hence, the PET yarn was selected as a control to evaluate the abrasion resistance of the PGA yarn. The initial tensile properties of the two yarns are presented in Figure 3(a). The extension and hairiness index of PGA and PET yarns during 100 cycles of abrasion under low and high tensions are shown in Figure 3(b) and (c), respectively. The low tension of 24.5 cN was the minimum tension at which the tester could operate stably, simulating mild abrasion conditions. The high-tension levels (39.2 cN for PGA and 58.8 cN for PET) were selected to apply a comparable specific tension of 0.25 cN/dtex to both yarns, enabling a direct comparison of their intrinsic abrasion resistance. The appearances of the yarns before and after abrasion are compared in Figure 3(d) and (e). Under low tension, both yarns exhibit limited extension. Notably, the PGA yarn has a higher hairiness index throughout the abrasion process, which can be attributed to its relatively loose and bulky structure in its original state. Under high tension, the PGA yarn shows lower extension than PET before 54 cycles, but this trend reverses thereafter. An accelerated increase in the hairiness index of the PGA yarn is observed after approximately 51 cycles. In the initial stage, the higher initial modulus of PGA made it less prone to extension compared to PET. Beyond 51 cycles, accelerated hairiness in PGA is likely resulted from significant fiber breakage. This breakage not only increased hairiness but also reduced the number of load-bearing fibers, leading to greater stress on the remaining fibers and further elongation. In contrast, PET’s lower initial modulus leads to rapid yarn extension within 60 cycles, followed by a plateau. This plateau coincides with an accelerated rise in hairiness, suggesting that surface fiber damage or breakage initiated around 60 cycles for PET. However, due to its higher tensile strength, PET did not undergo the extensive fiber breakage observed in PGA. For the PET yarn, limited fiber breakage and slight slippage of the broken fibers dissipated a portion of the energy, but their contribution to the macroscopic yarn extension was less than that from the fiber elongation in the initial stage. After 100 abrasion cycles, the PGA yarn had an elongation of 0.673%, approximately twice that of the PET yarn (0.354%). Results of yarn abrasion resistance tests: (a) tensile curves of original yarns; (b) extension and (c) hairiness index of the yarns during the abrasion process; photographs of (d) PGA and (e) PET yarns, where i is the yarn before abrasion, ii and iii are the yarn after 100 cycles of abrasion under low tension and high tension, respectively; (f) fiber diameter within the yarn before and after abrasion.
Fiber extension is typically accompanied by a reduction in fiber diameter. As shown in Figure 3(f), the fiber diameter shows negligible change after low-tension abrasion compared to the original yarn, indicating that the fibers remain elastic and recover upon unloading. Following high-tension abrasion, the diameter of PET fibers remains largely unchanged, suggesting limited damage to the overall mechanical integrity of the yarn, and thus demonstrating its superior abrasion resistance. In contrast, PGA fibers have a marked decrease in diameter, confirming the occurrence of plastic deformation under high-tension abrasion. It should be noted that the tension applied in the high-tension abrasion test was lower than the force required to induce plastic deformation in the original PGA yarn, as indicated in Figure 3(a). This further supports that significant fiber breakage occurred during the abrasion process, leading to the decline in the overall mechanical strength of the PGA yarn.
The PGA yarn has inferior abrasion resistance compared to PET, primarily due to its higher initial modulus, which restricts fiber extension and promotes energy dissipation through fiber breakage rather than energy absorption through elastic deformation. Increased tension further intensifies fiber damage by elevating contact pressure and abrasive forces. These findings demonstrate that precise control of yarn tension is critical to achieving low-damage knitting of PGA fibers.
3.2. Effect of knitting tension on PGA fiber damage
During the knitting process, the PGA yarn was subjected to friction from machine elements and prolonged exposure to fluctuating tension. On the computerized flat knitting machine, the yarn typically passes through several spring yarn tensioners before entering the yarn guide and feeding into knitting zone. Preliminary trials showed that the contacts imposed high tension on PGA fibers, leading to excessive yarn breakage. In this study, the PGA yarn was directly threaded through an electronic yarn tensioner EFS 920 capable of tension compensation before entering the guide, to mitigate frictional damage while providing lower and more stable knitting tension. As shown in Figure 4, the PGA yarn is relatively bulky when relaxed. As YIT increases, the fibers progressively cohere and become taut. At a YIT of 2.5 cN, the fibers are straightened without being over-tensioned. PGA yarn on the knitting machine at different yarn input tension (YIT) levels.
Figure 5(a) shows the tension fluctuations of the PGA yarn in one knitting cycle regulated with EFS 920 on the knitting machine. Tension fluctuations are inherent due to the reciprocating motion of the carriage, which carries the yarn guide across the knitting zone. A sharp tension peak occurs as the yarn guide enters the zone and the needles receive the yarn. Conversely, the yarn slackens when the carriage turns round. For the remainder of the cycle, the tension is maintained close to the preset YIT. Figure 5(b) and (c) present the tension fluctuation curves over five consecutive knitting cycles for the plain stitch and interlock stitch, respectively. As shown in Figure 5(d), the amplitude of YKT fluctuations increases as the YIT increases for both stitches. The frequency distribution of the YKT data is plotted from ten cycles for each YIT level. The frequency distribution histogram of the YKT (Figure 5(e)) indicates that at higher YIT levels, the YKT deviates more significantly and persistently from the preset value, reflecting a diminished control capability of the EFS 920. These intensified YKT fluctuations subject the yarn to dynamic fatigue stress, accelerating fiber breakage. Dynamic yarn knitting tension (YKT) fluctuations during PGA knitting under different yarn input tensions (YITs): (a) the fluctuation profile within one knitting cycle; the fluctuation curves over five knitting cycles for (b) plain stitch and (c) interlock stitch; (d) range of YKT fluctuation; (e) frequency distribution of the YKT.
As shown in Figure 6, the strength loss of the PGA yarns unraveled from the fabrics varies with the applied YITs, indicating a clear threshold of 2.5 cN. When the YIT is below 2.5 cN, the strength loss does not change significantly. In contrast, a further increase in YIT beyond 2.5 cN leads to a marked increase in strength loss. At the specific input tension of 2.5 cN, the strength loss is 18.13% for plain stitch and 10.31% for interlock stitch. At lower YITs, the fibers within the yarn experienced subtle force and entered the knitting zone in a relatively relaxed state. The EFS 920 maintained good control, resulting in smaller YKT fluctuations and consequently limited mechanical damage. When the YIT exceeds 2.5 cN, the fibers become parallel, straightened, and even taut. This increased tension intensifies friction between the yarn and knitting elements, while the associated YKT fluctuations become more pronounced. These combined effects cause greater mechanical damage to the yarn. Changes in mechanical properties of PGA yarns before and after knitting under different YITs: yarn unraveled from (a) plain stitch (NP=12.0) and (b) interlock stitch (NP=10.5) fabrics, where i is the tensile curve, ii is the tensile strength, and iii is the strength loss rate.
Beyond yarn damage, fabric surface quality further illustrates the impact of tension. As shown in Figure 7(a–i) and (b-i), the fabrics knitted at a YIT of 2.0 cN have noticeable surface fuzziness. This fuzziness is resulted from direct knitting of bulky and hairy yarn under excessively low tension, which could potentially induce tissue inflammation if used as an implant. The fabrics knitted at 2.5 cN (Figure 7(a-ii) and (b-ii)) have a clean surface and uniform loops. With a further increase in YIT, a growing number of fiber ends lead to progressively rougher fabric surfaces, as seen in Figure 7(a-iii), (a-iv), (b-iii) and (b-iv). Photographs of PGA knitted fabrics produced under different YITs: (a) plain stitch (NP=12.0); (b) interlock stitch (NP=10.5), where i, ii, iii, and iv correspond to YITs of 2.0 cN, 2.5 cN, 3.0 cN, and 3.5 cN.
Selecting an appropriate YIT is crucial for achieving low-damage knitting of PGA fibers, as it balances fabric quality with fiber strength retention. This balance is achievable at lower tension levels, which ensure fiber cohesion while decreasing YKT fluctuations.
3.3. Influence of knit stitch and loop length on fiber damage and fabric properties
The versatility of knit stitch is a key advantage for designing knitted PGA implants that provide stable mechanical support. However, this advantage can be compromised by yarn damage induced by improper structural parameters. Therefore, this section discusses the effects of knit stitch and loop length by adjusting sinking depth (NP value) on yarn damage and the mechanical properties of the fabric to achieve an optimal balance. Plain and interlock stitches were knitted at various NP values under the same YIT of 2.5 cN. Figure 8 shows distinct scratches and abrasion marks on the PGA fiber surfaces after knitting. This surface damage becomes severer as the loop length decreases. A tighter fabric structure increases friction between the fibers and knitting needles, causing greater fiber damage. Surface changes of PGA fibers before and after knitting: (a) the original yarn fiber; (b) fibers from yarns unraveled from plain stitch fabrics, with i, ii, and iii corresponding to NP values of 11.7, 12.0, and 12.3, respectively; (c) fibers from yarns unraveled from interlock stitch fabrics, with i, ii, and iii corresponding to NP values of 10.2, 10.5, and 10.8, respectively.
As shown in Figure 9(a) and (b), the strength loss of unraveled yarns increases significantly with decreasing loop length. Notably, the reduction in strength loss becomes less pronounced with further increases in loop length when the NP value exceeds 10.5 for interlock stitch and 12.0 for plain stitch. This trend occurs because the contact pressure and friction between the fibers and the knitting elements are reduced under the constant knitting tension. Overall, the interlock stitch caused slightly less reduction in yarn strength compared to the plain stitch. In knitting plain stitch, yarn forms a loop on one needle and then on the adjacent needle in the same needle bed, resulting in a high degree of yarn bending. Furthermore, the sinker loops of the plain stitch are in friction with the machine sinkers. In contrast, knitting interlock stitch involves less yarn bending, and its sinker loops are positioned between the two needle beds, which avoids contact with the sinkers. Mechanical properties of yarns before and after knitting in different stitches and NP values: yarns unraveled from (a) plain stitch and (b) interlock stitch fabrics, where i is the tensile curve, ii is the yarn tensile strength, and iii is the strength loss rate relative to the original yarn.
Textile implants require sufficient mechanical strength to provide stable support during the critical tissue regeneration period. The increase in fabric density simultaneously contributes to higher structural strength and exacerbates yarn damage. To clarify this competing effect and identify the optimal balance, the influence of different knit stitches and sinking depths on the overall fabric quality is analyzed. As shown in Figure 10(a) and (b), the loop length significantly affects the breaking force in the walewise direction of both plain and interlock fabrics. Overall, the breaking force in the walewise direction generally decreases as the loop length increases, corresponding to reduced load-bearing wales per inch, as shown in Table 1. Although yarn damage decreases with increasing loop length (Figure 9), this benefit was insufficient to compensate for the fabric strength loss resulted from the decreased wales per inch. The maximum breaking force in the walewise direction reached 901.97 N for the interlock stitch fabric (NP = 10.2) and 425.19 N for the plain stitch fabric (NP = 12.0). Since NP=10.2 caused a higher yarn strength loss rate (24.84%), NP=10.5 with a lower loss rate of 10.32% was selected as the optimal parameter for the interlock stitch fabric. This combination achieved a high breaking force of 812.35 N in the walewise direction while effectively mitigating fiber damage. In Figure 10(a-iii), the difference in walewise breaking force between plain stitch fabrics with NP=11.7 and NP=12.0 is not statistically significant. However, the mean breaking force in the walewise direction was slightly lower for plain stitch fabric with NP=11.7 (390.28 N), which is attributed to the substantially higher mechanical damage to the yarn (30.14%) at NP=11.7 compared to that (18.13%) of NP=12.0. Unlike the obviously varied walewise breaking forces, the effect of loop length on the coursewise breaking force is subtle. The fine distinction is because the entire courses of loops were unraveled from the stitch in stretching and the resultant fiber bundle accounted for the coursewise breaking force. Since the courses per inch remain constant for fabrics with different loop lengths (Table 1), the number of fibers in the bundles is almost equal, which results in the largely unchanged breaking forces. Figure 11 shows the fabrics with different knit stitches and loop lengths. After relaxation, greater loop distortion is observed with increasing loop length, compromising the uniformity of stress distribution during fabric stretching. Mechanical properties of PGA knitted fabrics with different structures and NP values: (a) plain stitch and (b) interlock stitch, where i is the tensile curve stretched walewise, ii is the tensile curve stretched coursewise, and iii is the breaking forces in both directions. Photographs of PGA knitted fabrics produced at a YIT of 2.5 cN: (a) plain stitch; (b) interlock stitch. For (a), i, ii, and iii correspond to NP values of 11.7, 12.0, and 12.3. For (b), i, ii, and iii correspond to NP values of 10.2, 10.5, and 10.8.
It is demonstrated that optimizing PGA implant performance can be achieved by means of proper selection of knit stitch and sinking depth to mitigate fiber damage while increasing fabric strength. The identified parameter sets, specifically plain stitch at NP=12.0 and interlock stitch at NP=10.5, exemplify this synergy. Such rational combinations provide key guidelines for designing PGA knitted implants capable of delivering the stable mechanical support required during initial tissue regeneration, thereby enhancing treatment reliability.
4. Conclusions
This work establishes a low-damage knitting technique based on yarn tension regulation and knit stitch optimization to preserve fiber strength while producing high-strength fabrics, offering a viable path for early-stage implant support. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) The poor abrasion resistance of PGA fibers is a key factor for fiber damage in knitting. Its poor abrasion resistance stems from its high initial modulus, which restricts elastic deformation and promotes energy dissipation through fiber breakage under friction, leading to hairiness and strength loss. (2) Precise tension regulation is essential for low-damage knitting. Appropriate tension straightens the fibers by reducing unnecessary stretching and friction, thereby mitigating the fatigue-inducing fluctuations. For the 312 dtex PGA yarn in this study, a yarn input tension of 2.5 cN was identified as optimal. (3) Optimizing knit stitch and loop length balances yarn damage and fabric performance. The optimal combination of knit stitch and processing parameters should ensure an appropriate loop length to mitigate friction while maintaining stitch density for mechanical support.
The findings from this study reveal the mechanisms of PGA fiber damage in knitting and provide a practical knitting solution, laying a foundation for high-performance implants. It is noteworthy that preset of yarn input tension should take yarn linear density and mechanical properties into account. Future work should establish the relationship between yarn input tension and linear density.
Footnotes
Acknowledgement
The author(s) gratefully acknowledge Suzhou Changfeng Textile Mechatronical Technology Co., Ltd. for providing the yarn full life cycle tester, which was essential for the yarn abrasion testing in this study.
Ethical considerations
This article does not contain any studies with human or animal participants.
Author contributions
This author contribution Statement affirms that all individuals listed as authors agree that they have met the criteria for authorship, agree to the conclusions of the study, and that no individual meeting the criteria for authorship has been omitted. The specific contributions of each author are as follows:
Yu He: Methodology, Investigation, Writing – original draft
Zhenchao Qian: Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing
Fen Zhou: Resources, Data curation
Rui Wang: Resources, Data curation, Writing – review & editing
Yumei Zhang: Supervision, Writing – review & editing
Yanping Liu: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the research project of China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation (grant number 224259) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (grant number CUSF-DH-T-2024046).
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.