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Abstract

Warp-knitted spacer fabrics are a widely considerable material owing to its unique sandwich structure and superior performance, employed across diverse fields such as military, transportation, construction, and personal protection. However, they are inevitably subjected to impacts in practical applications. This work investigated the influence of surface layer structure on the impact resistance property of fabrics by drop weight tests. The damage tolerance of warp-knitted spacer fabrics was also studied through repeated impact experiments. To further improve the impact resistance property of the fabric, a simple sewing method was proposed in this work. Inspired by the spiderweb structure, a spiderweb shape was sewn on the fabric. The results demonstrated that hexagonal mesh as the impact surface provided better impact resistance for the fabric. As the number of impacts increases, the deformation of the fabric gradually intensifies, and the fabric is completely damaged during the fourth impact. The stitch can enhance its impact resistance, and the shape of the stitch had a significant influence on the impact resistance performance.

Keywords

Warp-knitted spacer fabric low-velocity impact stitch spider web energy absorption

Introduction

Warp-knitted spacer fabrics (WKSFs) are a kind of three-dimensional textile structural materials composed of two surface layers and spacer yarns connecting and supporting these two layers.¹ WKSFs are usually fabricated on double-bed raschel warp knitting machine. The unique sandwich structure provides WKSFs with excellent performance advantages, including high compressibility, breathability, impact resistance, elastic recovery characteristics, as well as strong designability. As a result, WKSFs are widely utilized in clothing and home textiles applications such as shoes, knee pads, helmets, mattresses, and industries including aerospace, military, construction, and transportation.^2–5 WKSFs have gained significant attention and are widely acknowledged as one of the most promising materials in various fields.

Several studies have explored mechanical properties,^6–8 sound absorption behavior,^9–11 permeability,^12–14 and thermal properties^15–17 of WKSFs. While existing research mainly focuses on the compressibility behavior of WKSFs by varying their structural parameters,^18–22 studying the impact resistance and energy absorption ability is crucial since WKSFs are often used as cushioning and protective materials such as helmets, protective clothing, seat cushions. There are fewer studies on the impact resistance behavior and energy absorption for WKSFs. Chang et al. designed and prepared an auxetic warp-knitted spacer fabric and study the impact resistance and energy absorption ability under low-velocity impact. Results show that a higher magnitude of negative Poisson’s ratio leads to improved energy absorption capability and impact resistance of the WKSFs.²³ Guo et al. conducted an experimental study on the influence of spacer fabrics’ structures, that is, different surface stitches, fabric thicknesses, and diameters of spacer yarns, on the impact and compression-after-impact properties of warp-knitted spacer fabrics.²⁴ Liu et al. prepared a series of warp-knitted spacer fabrics by varying their structural parameters and studied the impact compressive behavior of warp-knitted spacer fabrics.²⁵ The WKSFs are widely used as cushioning materials in personal protective clothing and equipment again impact, therefore, Liu et al. used a drop-weight impact tester to test the fabrics in a hemispherical form to simulate the use of impact protectors in real life.^26,27

To further improve the impact resistance of WKSFs, researchers traditionally employ coating treatments or make the WKSFs into composites. Lu et al. investigated the impact behavior of warp-knitted spacer fabrics impregnated with shear thickening fluid under low-velocity impact loadings from experimental and finite element analyses approaches.²⁸ Xu et al. prepared auxetic warp-knitted spacer fabrics impregnated with shear thickening fluid and studied their impact behaviors under low-velocity impact loading.²⁹ Zhi et al. investigated the low-velocity impact properties of syntactic foam reinforced by warp-knitted spacer fabric and discussed the effect of warp-knitted spacer fabric and hollow glass micro balloons parameters on the impact performance of composites.³⁰ Ertekin analyzed the effect of coating, fabric layers and structural parameters on the impact resistance behavior of warp knitted spacer fabrics used for protective clothing. The results indicate that, the impact resistance properties of warp knitted spacer fabrics can be improved considerably by coating as reducing approximately 10 kN of the peak transmitted force.³¹ However, these methods can be complex and compromise the softness and breathability of the fabric, which limits their application in protective clothing and other areas. There are still challenges in improving the impact resistance of warp-knitted spacer fabrics through appropriate methods.

In nature, the gentle spider web can withstand the impact of prey, which has aroused the interest of researchers. Spider webs possess remarkable impact resistance properties due to excellent mechanical properties of spider silk and near-perfect geometry of spider webs. The spider web is composed of radial silks with high strength and low deformation, and spiral silks with low strength and high deformation. The regular structure of the spider web allows for efficient force distribution and energy dissipation, preventing localized damage and ensuring the overall integrity of the web.^32–37

Herein, we proposed a bionic strategy to improve the impact resistance of WKSFs. A warp-knitted mesh spacer fabric was prepared, the top and bottom surface layers had different mesh structures. A series of drop weight impact tests were carried out to find out how the surface layer structure affects its impact resistance behavior and energy absorption property. Additionally, damage tolerance was investigated through repeated impact experiments. Inspired by the topological structure of spider webs, high-strength yarns were used to sew spiderweb shaped stitches onto WKSFs. Subsequently, the study explored the effects of stitch shape on the low-velocity impact behavior of the WKSFs.

Materials and experiments

Materials and specimens

The WKSFs shown in Figure 1(a) and (b) were all knitted on a GE296 (RD6) E18 high-speed double-needle-bar warp-knitting machine with six guide bars, whereas polyester multifilament of 200D/64f were used to fabric the surface layer through GB1,GB2 for the top layer as shown in Figure 1(c) and GB5, GB6 for the bottom layer as shown in Figure 1(d), polyester monofilaments of 0.2 mm in diameter were used as spacer yarns to connect the two outer layers together through GB3 and GB4. The thickness of WKSF is 5 mm and the areal density is 428.6 g/m². The weft density of WKSF is 7.2 wales/cm and the warp density is 6.4 courses/cm. The structure of top layer is hexagonal mesh, and the structure of bottom layer is double-tricot stitch. The detailed preparation parameters are shown in Table 1. The 3D models of fabrics were simulated using the WKCAD software developed by Jiangnan University.

Figure 1.

Structure of the WKSF. (a) The real image of WKSF; (b) three-dimensional simulation model to describe the WKSF; (c) top layer of the WKSF; (d) bottom layer of the WKSF.

Table 1.

The detailed preparation parameters of WKSFs.

Layers	Guide bars	Chain notation	Threading	Yarn
Top layer	GB1	(1-0-0-0/1-2-2-2) × 2/1-0-0-0/2-3-3-3/(2-1-1-1/2-3-3-3) × 2//	1full, 1empty	200D/48F polyester DTY
Top layer	GB2	(2-3-3-3/2-1-1-1) × 2/2-3-3-3/1-0-0-0/(1-2-2-2/1-0-0-0) × 2//	1full, 1empty	200D/48F polyester DTY
Spacer layer	GB3	(1-0-1-2) × 4/1-0-2-3/(2-1-2-3) × 5//	1full, 1empty	0.2 mm polyester monofilament
Spacer layer	GB4	(2-3-2-1) × 4/2-3-1-0/(1-2-1-0) × 5//	1full, 1empty	0.2 mm polyester monofilament
Bottom layer	GB5	(1-1-1-0/1-1-1-2) × 5//	Full	200D/48F polyester DTY
Bottom layer	GB6	(1-1-1-2/1-1-1-0) × 5//	Full	200D/48F polyester DTY

Aramid braided yarns have been selected as sewing threads because aramid fiber has high-performance mechanical properties and is widely used in the impact resistant products.^38–40 The sewing threads are braided from 8 strands of 150D aramid fiber with a pitch of 3 mm. As shown in Figure 3(a), Aramid braided threads have high tensile strength and low deformation. The sewing needle method is a double lock stitch as shown in Figure 2(b). Firstly, vertical lines were sewed on the warp knitted spacer fabric, the seam distance of sample c1, c2, and c3 is constant, which is 30 mm, 20 mm, and 10 mm respectively. Then, sewing the spiderweb shape with aramid braided yarn as shown in Figure 3(d) and (e). The samples “d” were used to investigate the effects of the number of radial threads of spiderweb-like sewn patterns on impact properties of WKSFs, While the samples “e” were used to investigate the effects of the number of spiral threads of spiderweb-like sewn patterns on impact properties of WKSFs. The size of the spider web is 100 mm × 100 mm. For samples d1, d2, and d3, the number of spiral threads is 3, while the number of radial threads is 4, 6, and 8. For samples e1, e2, e3, and e4, the number of radial threads is 6, and the number of spiral threads is 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively.

Figure 2.

The view of warp-knitted spacer fabric reinforced with stitch. (a) Tensile curve of aramid braided yarn; (b) schematic representation of the double lock stitch; (c) real image of sample c1/c2/c3; (d) real image of sample d1/d2/d3; (e) real image of sample e1/e2/e3/e4.

Figure 3.

Drop-weight impact tester.

Low-velocity impact tests

All test samples were tested after constant temperature and humidity adjustment for 24 h. The sample placement conditions are temperature 20 ± 2°C and humidity 65% ± 2%. Low-velocity impact tests were conducted on WKSFs according to the ASTMD7136/7136M-16 standard test methods using a drop weight testing device, as shown in Figure 3. The pounding head of the tester is hemispheric with a mass of 0.202 kg and a diameter of 20 mm. A pressure sensor is connected to the pounding head, which can measure a maximum load of 10 kN. The total impact weight of 4.702 kg was dropped freely from the height of 217.28 mm, 325.92 mm, 434.56 mm and 543.20 mm, which were corresponding to the impact velocity from 1.77 m/s, 2.25 m/s, 2.67 m/s to 3.08 m/s and impact energy from 10 J, 15 J, 20 J to 25 J. In the repeated impact tests, the hexagonal mesh surface serves as the impact surface with an impact energy of 15 J. When the sewn fabric is investigated, the double-tricot stitch surface serves as the impact surface with an impact energy of 15 J.During the tests, five specimens were tested for each fabric, and all the presented force-time impact curves, force-displacement impact curves and energy-time impact curves in the figures are the most representative curves.

Damage identification

The surface morphologies of the damaged locations were inspected using an optical microscope (DVM6 A, Leica Microsystems GmbH). Fracture and damage of fibers were analyzed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM, HITACHI SU1510) at an acceleration voltage of 5.00 kV.

Analysis of significance tests

The values of maximum impact force and energy absorption of WKSFs reinforced with spider-web shaped stitch in the tests were evaluated by using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA, SPASS) for each dependent variable. Any difference for each dependent variable was significant if the p-value was equal to or less than .05.

Result and discussion

The effect of surface layer structure on low-velocity impact properties

Drop weight tests were conducted to investigate the effect of surface layer structure on low-velocity impact properties of WKSFs. Figure 4(a)–(c) show the typical impact force-time curves, force-displacement curves and energy-time curves, respectively. It can be seen that when the hexagonal mesh surface layer (top layer) is used as the impact surface, the warp-knitted spacer fabric exhibits an increased maximum force and greater energy absorption as the initial impact energy increases. Similarly, when the double-tricot stitch layer (bottom layer) is used as the impact surface, the maximum force and energy absorption of the spacer fabric increase with the impact energy applied as shown in Figure 4(d)–(f). However, it should be noted that when the initial impact energy reaches 25 J, the samples occur damage and penetration. As the initial impact energy increases, more impact energy is transmitted to the fabric, leading to a stronger impact force on the fabric. The sandwich structure and material characteristics of the fabric can effectively absorb and disperse impact energy. Furthermore, Figure 4(g) and (h) show that, under identical initial impact energy conditions, when the hexagonal mesh surface layer is used as the impact surface, the warp-knitted spacer fabric demonstrates higher maximum force and superior energy absorption compared to using the double-tricot stitch layer as the impact surface. This discrepancy can be attributed to the surface layer structure and the arrangement of spacer yarns. Compared to the double-tricot stitch, the hexagonal mesh structure offers greater elasticity and flexibility.^8,41,42 When subjected to impact, the mesh structure bends and deforms, thereby cushioning and absorbing a portion of the impact energy. Due to the difference in the structure of the top and the bottom layers, the arrangements of spacer yarns are also different. After WKSFs are taken off the double-bed raschel warp knitting machine, they undergo post-processing to form hexagonal meshes on the top layer. The connected parts of two vertically wale are tightened and form vertical sides of the hexagonal mesh, while the spaced yarns are inclined and closely adjacent to each other. As shown in Figure 4(i), the spacer yarns supporting the two vertical sides of the hexagonal mesh form a triangular shape, while those in double-tricot stitch layer form an X shape. This triangular arrangement is more stable and helps distribute the impact force more evenly, reducing localized stress concentration, therefore, it can withstand greater force and absorb more energy. Comparatively, the spacer yarns in the double-tricot stitch layer form an X shape, which may not provide the same level of stability and force distribution as the triangular arrangement. The X-shaped structure may be more prone to shifting or collapsing under impact, limiting its ability to effectively absorb and dissipate energy. Therefore, the surface layer structure has a significant effect on the impact resistance performance of the WKSFs. For the same type of WKSFs, different surface layer structures used as the impact surface will also result in different impact resistance behavior. The hexagonal mesh structure with a triangular spacer yarn arrangement offers enhanced elasticity, stability, and force distribution, making it more effective in absorbing and dissipating impact energy compared to the double-tricot stitch.

Figure 4.

Impact performance of WKSFs. (a) Force-time impact curves, (b) force-displacement impact curves and (c) energy-time impact curves of top layer. (d) Force-time impact curves, (e) force-displacement impact curves and (f) energy-time impact curves of bottom layer. (g) Maximum impact force and (h) energy absorption of top and bottom layer. (i) Schematic impact resistance mechanism of warp-knitted spacer fabrics.

The impact tolerance of the WKSFs

When the hexagonal mesh surface layer is used as the impact surface, the fabric has better energy absorption performance, so taking the hexagonal mesh surface as the impact surface, repeated impact tests were performed on the same fabric to evaluate its impact tolerance. As shown in Figure 5(a)–(c), with an increasing number of impacts, deformation of the fabric gradually increased, the maximum impact force increased, and the energy absorption initially increased and then decreased. This is because the deformation of the fabric during the second impact is greater, which can absorb more energy.^43,44 However, during the third impact, the energy absorption of fabric decreased, this is because the repeated impacts can lead to severe damage of the fabric structure, reducing its ability to absorb energy. Additionally, the accumulation of damage over multiple impacts can result in a loss of structural integrity and a decrease in energy absorption capacity. When the fabric was subjected to the fourth impact, hammer penetrates the fabric, causing complete damage to the fabric. From Figure 5(d)–(g), it can be observed that during the first impact, there was a slight deformation near the impact point. The deformation increased during the second impact, causing the mesh shape near impact point to become distorted and twisted. Upon the third impact, localized damage occurred in the impact point, with the surface layer filament breaking. Finally, when the fabric was subjected to the fourth impact, it reached a point where it cannot withstand the impact anymore, complete destruction and penetration of the fabric took place. As shown in Figure 5(g), the surface layer multifilament near the impact point was unable to withstand the impact force and broke, the spacer yarns were partially pulled out and broken. During repeated impacts, the spacer yarns underwent multiple impacts and rebounds, accumulating plastic deformation. The bending degree of the spacer yarns near the impact point increased, and the load-bearing capacity of the damaged spacer yarn decreased. More and more impact load was borne by the surface layer, while spacer yarns mainly acted as an anchor for the surface layers.

Figure 5.

Impact tolerance of WKSFs under repeated impact. (a) Force-time impact curves, (b) force-displacement impact curves and (c) energy-time impact curves of four impact tests. The real image of warp-knitted spacer fabric under (d) the first-time impact; (e) the second time impact; (f) the third time impact; (g) the fourth time impact.

Effects of stitch shape on the low-velocity impact behavior of the WKSFs

Stitches of different shapes are sewn onto WKSFs to investigate the effects of stitch shape on the low-velocity impact behavior. The WKSFs with vertical seams at distances of 30 mm, 20 mm, and 10 mm were named samples c1/c2/c3, respectively, as shown in Figure 2(c). The WKSFs without seams were used as the control samples and the bottom layer (double-tricot stitch) was used as the impact surface. Results from Figure 6(a)–(d) show that Sample c3 has the highest maximum impact force and absorbed energy, which are 29.7% and 19.1% higher than the control sample, respectively, followed by sample c2 and c1. The result reveal that as the distance between the sewing threads was reduced, the maximum impact force and energy absorption of the fabric increased, indicating better impact resistance performance.

Figure 6.

Impact performance of WKSFs reinforced with stitch. (a) Force-time impact curves, (b) force-displacement impact curves and (c) energy-time impact curves (d) maximum impact force and energy absorption of sample c1/c2/c3. (e) Force-time impact curves, (f) force-displacement impact curves and (g) energy-time impact curves (h) maximum impact force and energy absorption of sample d1/d2/d3. (i) Force-time impact curves, (j) force-displacement impact curves and (k) energy-time impact curves (l) maximum impact force and energy absorption of sample e1/e2/e3/e4.

Inspired by the geometrical structure of spiderwebs, different types of spiderweb shapes are sewn onto the WKSFs. Samples d1, d2, and d3 were characterized by a spiral thread count of three and radial thread counts of 4, 6, and 8, respectively. As shown in Figure 6(e)–(g), an increased number of radial threads per unit area resulted in higher maximum force, greater energy absorption, and improved impact resistance performance of the fabric. In comparison to the control sample, samples d1, d2, and d3 exhibited significant increases in maximum impact force. Specifically, the maximum impact force was found to have increased by 27.3%, 52.3%, and 60.2% for d1, d2, and d3, respectively. Furthermore, the absorbed energy in samples d1, d2, and d3 increased by 10.3%, 17.1%, and 20.6% respectively compared to the control sample. Samples e1, e2 and e3 have a radial thread count of six and spiral thread counts of 1/2/3/4, respectively. It was observed from Figure 6(h)–(k) that a higher number of spiral threads per unit area resulted in increased maximum impact force, enhanced energy absorption, and improved impact resistance performance of the fabric. When comparing the maximum impact force of samples e1, e2, e3 and e4 with the control sample, notable increases were observed. Sample e1 exhibited a 16.1% increase, sample e2 showed a 28.6% increase, sample e3 showed a 50.5% increase, and sample d3 demonstrated the highest increase of 64.2%. Similarly, in terms of absorbed energy, samples d1, d2, and d3 displayed significant improvements compared to the control sample. Sample e1 experienced a 6.8% increase, sample e2 recorded a 13.2% increase, e3 recorded a 17.1% increase and sample e4 showed the highest recorded increase of 22.4%.

The impact resistance performance of the above samples is superior to that of the control samples. Therefore, this sewing method based on the geometrical structure of spider webs has shown great potential in improving the impact resistance performance of fabrics. Significance test results shown in Table 2 indicate that effect of vertical seams spacing, number of spiral threads, and number of radial threads on maximum impact force and absorbed energy are all significant.

Table 2.

Significance test results.

Category	Samples	Test	Result
Maximum impact force	Control, c1, c2, c3	F	145.925
	Control, c1, c2, c3	p	<0.001
	Control, d1, d2, d3	F	311.607
	Control, d1, d2, d3	p	<0.001
	Control, e1, e2, e3, e4	F	621.322
	Control, e1, e2, e3, e4	p	<0.001
Energy absorption	Control, c1, c2, c3	F	101.401
	Control, c1, c2, c3	p	<0.001
	Control, d1, d2, d3	F	93.844
	Control, d1, d2, d3	p	<0.001
	Control, c1, c2, c3	F	129.165
	Control, c1, c2, c3	p	<0.001

It is worth noting that as the number of spiral and radial threads increases within a unit area, the growth rate of energy absorption decreases, and the fabric stiffness significantly increases, resulting in reduced flexibility and bending performance. This is because the increase in spiral and radial threads leads to a tighter integration of the fabric. More threads mean more intersections and connection points within the fabric, which makes its structure more robust. However, this also limits the fabric’s ability to bend and deform.

Warp-knitted spacer fabric consists of two surface layers and spacer yarns, as shown in Figure 7. The surface layer is formed by loops, with large gaps between loops. When subjected to impact, the loops are prone to deformation and extension, resulting in significant deformation of the fabric. After being impacted, the impact force will be transmitted along the loops, and the layering of the loops makes the path of force transmission longer. When external forces are applied, due to a certain gap or continuity between the loops, the force needs to be transmitted layer by layer along the path between the loops. Compared to the direct force transmission path, the force transmission path of the loop structure is more tortuous, resulting in a slower speed of force transmission. Secondly, there is a certain degree of compression and misalignment between the loops. This compression and misalignment can cause the dispersion and dissipation of force, further reducing the efficiency of force transmission. In addition, loop deformation and displacement can cause changes and distortions in the force transmission path, thereby reducing the speed of force transmission.

Figure 7.

Schematic reinforcement mechanism of WKSFs with spiderweb-inspired stitch. (a) WKSFs without stitch; (b) WKSFs with spiderweb-inspired stitch.

In comparison to warp-knitted spacer fabric materials, aramid braided yarns exhibit superior strength and exceptional impact resistance. The high-strength yarns have a reduced tendency to break when subjected to impact, thereby preserving the fabric’s integrity and preventing it from tearing or puncturing. Additionally, sewing fabrics with these high-strength yarns enhances their structural stability, resulting in increased durability and resilience.^45,46 Furthermore, when a warp-knitted spacer fabric is subjected to impact, the stitches create a pathway for force transmission and energy dissipation. This enables the force to be rapidly transferred away from impact point, resulting in greater energy dissipation. The intertwined structure formed by the spiral and radial lines in a spider web further enhances the transmission pathway of force, leading to increased dispersion and dissipation of the force.^47,48 Collectively, these factors enhance the overall impact resistance performance of a stitch-reinforced warp-knitted spacer fabric.

Conclusion

In this paper, a series of drop weight impact tests were performed to investigate the effects of the surface layer structure on the impact behavior of the warp-knitted spacer fabrics. The damage tolerance of the warp-knitted spacer fabrics was also discussed by repeated impact tests. A sewing method is proposed to improve the low-velocity impact behavior and warp-knitted spacer fabrics reinforced with spider-web shaped stitch were prepared and studied. According to the experimental results and analysis, the following conclusions can be drawn.

(1) The surface layer structure has a significant influence on the fabric’s impact resistance behavior. Warp-knitted spacer fabrics with hexagonal mesh as the impact surface exhibit superior impact resistance compared to fabrics with double-tricot stitch as the impact surface.

(2) As the number of impacts increases, the energy absorption of the fabric first increases and then decreases. The deformation of the fabric gradually becomes severe until the fourth impact, when the fabric is penetrated.

(3) Sewing high-strength thread on the warp-knitted spacer fabrics can improve the impact resistance of the fabric. Within a certain range, the smaller the spacing between vertical lines, the better the impact resistance performance. When the number of spiral lines is constant, the more radial lines a spider web has, the greater its maximum force and energy absorption. When the number of radial lines is fixed, the more the spiral lines in a spider web, the greater the maximum force and energy absorption.

The findings from this study can assist in enhancing the impact resistance of warp-knitted spacer fabrics and broaden their applications in protection, cushioning, and other fields. However, there is still some research needed in the future, such as finite element analysis of fabrics reinforced with stitch, the applicability of this sewing method to the structure of fabrics, and so on.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The authors acknowledge the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52373058, 11972172).

ORCID iD

Pibo Ma

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Low-velocity impact behavior of warp-knitted spacer fabric reinforced with spiderweb shaped stitch

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Materials and experiments

Materials and specimens

Low-velocity impact tests

Damage identification

Analysis of significance tests

Result and discussion

The effect of surface layer structure on low-velocity impact properties

The impact tolerance of the WKSFs

Effects of stitch shape on the low-velocity impact behavior of the WKSFs

Conclusion

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

Funding

ORCID iD

References