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Abstract

The area of forests continues decreasing while the water/soil loss becomes worse. In these complicated environments, mechanical properties, stability, high modulus and low elongation of geotextiles are required. On a premise of the acquisition of good mechanical properties and the improvement in the deformation and puncture resistance of nonwoven fabric, woven/nonwoven hybrid geotextiles are designed and made with needle punch processing technology in this study. The test results indicate that the mechanical properties of hybrid geotextiles are improved significantly when the areal density of nylon fabrics is increased. In particular, with the areal density of 400 g/m², hybrid geotextiles exhibit the maximal mechanical properties and puncture resistance. Moreover, the pore fraction of hybrid geotextiles decreases as a result of a rise in the areal density of nylon top/bottom layers. The use of a 3 D mesh fabric as the interlayer provides the needle punched composite geotextiles with the highest tensile resistance, puncture resistance. The composite geotextiles are treated with acid and alkali to simulate the corrosion under natural conditions of stabilized soil. The resultant geotextile has good mechanical properties and acid/alkali degradation resistance. This allows the hybrid geotextiles to stabilize water and soil conservation in complicated conditions.

Keywords

Woven/nonwoven hybrid geotextiles Needle punching technology tensile resistance puncture resistance degradation resistance

Introduction

Geotextiles are a flat product made of polymers, such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polyester, nylon fibers, and can be divided into woven geotextiles, knitted geotextiles [1], and nonwoven geotextile according to the manufacturing processes. Subsequently, geotextiles are featured by high strength, high corrosion resistance, good water permeability, good antibacterial property, ease of processing, and diverse measurements [2]. Because of different designs, geotextiles have multiple functions as in filtration, reverse filtration, isolation, protection, drainage, anti-puncture, reinforcement, and surface erosion control [3 –6]. Due to the permeability resistance, they are also commonly used in hydraulic, railway, power, roads, and environmental protection, underwater, and underground engineering, and have become the fourth largest new building material following steel, wood, and cement [7]. In the domestic market, nonwoven geotextiles are primarily made with spunbond, staple fiber needling, and thermal bonding approaches. In particular, spunbonded geotextiles have good mechanical properties and filtration efficiency whereas they also have a high production cost [8]. Comparing to needle punched geotextiles with the same specifications, thermal bonded geotextiles have higher tensile strength, tear strength, breaking elongation, and vertical and horizontal ratio, and are thus pervasively used [9]. In addition, staple-fiber needle punched geotextiles have a great thickness, a high density, a good permeability, a high pore fraction, a fluffy structure, a high deformation resistance, and a low production cost; however, their mechanical properties are not as good as those of common geotextiles [10 –12]. In the studies by Jawaid et al. [13] and Valenca et al. [14], staple fibers were into a lamination structure, serving as geotextile reinforcement to compensate for the shortage of staple-fiber needle punched geotextiles. Xiong et al. proposed a novel geotextile structure where soil nets were aligned in a unique way in order to form geotextiles with eco-friendly features, a low production cost, and freezing resistance [15]. Li et al. employed the needle puncture/thermal bonding method to produce multilayer nonwoven geotextiles featuring a small pore diameter, a good water permeability, and good shear resistance [16]. Nonwoven fabrics have much lower mechanical properties than woven fabrics, so the presence of high modulus fibers has a positive influence on the performances of composite nonwoven fabrics [17].

The incorporation of the composite process with nonwoven fabrics improves the practical uses of geotextiles while expanding the application field for the resulting product. For example, needle punched geotextiles are usually coated or hot pressed with impervious materials such as PVC, PE, or rubber [18]. Therefore, composite geotextiles are proposed in this study with a purpose of combining diverse functions of different fabrics. In this case, the geotextiles can be mechanically strengthened and meet the stability requirements by special environments concurrently. With the design of woven/nonwoven hybrid geotextiles, nylon fabrics with an areal density of 200 g/m², 300 g/m², and 400 g/m² are used as the top and bottom layers, because of their high strength, good wear resistance and corrosion resistance, simple production process and low cost. Enclosing an interlayer of a glass fiber plain weave fabric, a glass fiber grid, or a 3 D mesh fabric. The composites are processed with the needle punching technology, and the resulting hybrid geotextiles are tested for the tensile strength, puncture strength, burst strength, degradation resistance, and porosity, thereby determining the optimal geotextiles. When composed of a 3 D mesh fabric as the interlayer, the proposed woven/nonwoven hybrid geotextiles exhibit the optimal acid and alkali corrosion resistance, which is essential for the practical application of protective geotextiles in a diversity of complex environments.

Experimentals

Materials

Nylon nonwoven fabrics (Far Eastern New Century, Taiwan) are composed of a fiber fineness of 4 denier and an areal density of 200 g/m², 300 g/m², 400 g/m².Glass-fiber plain weave fabrics (Medium carbon technology, China) have a fiber fineness of 1.5 denier and an areal density of 200 g/m². Glass fiber grids (Shuanghe Metal, China) have a fiber fineness of 5.3 denier and a areal density of 150 g/m². 3 D mesh fabrics (Huayu weaving, China) have an areal density of 360 g/m² and an interval distance of 6 mm. All of compositions of composite geotextiles are listed in Table 1.

Table 1

. Areal density of each layer of geotextiles.

Station	Samples	Areal density (g/m²)
Top/bottom layers	Nylon nonwoven fabric	200, 300, 400
Inner layer	Glass fiber plain weave fabric	200
Inner layer	Glass fiber grids	150
Inner layer	3D mesh fabric	160

Preparation of samples

Three-layered samples are needle punched with a density of 200 needles/min and a depth of 17 mm using a needle punching machine (RSZ 80, Rom Seen, China). The needle type is 15 × 16 × 25 × 3 1/2 M332 G 53017 (Groz-Beckert, Germany). Figure 1 shows laminated configuration of the woven/nonwoven hybrid geotextiles. The top and bottom layers are nylon nonwoven fabrics that have a areal density of 200 g/m², 300 g/m², or 400 g/m², separately. The three types of top/bottom layers are combined with an interlayer being a 3 D mesh fabric, a glass fiber plain weave fabric, or a glass fiber grid, thereby forming different hybrid geotextiles. Table 2 demonstrates the nine combinations of geotextiles that are denoted by the digit (i.e. the areal density of nylon fabrics) and the interlayer type. For example, “200plain” means the hybrid geotextiles are made of nylon top/bottom layers with an areal density of 200 g/m², and a “glass fiber plain weave fabric” as the interlayer. Moreover, “grids” refer to a “glass fiber grid” while “mesh” refers to a “3 D mesh fabric.” Figure 2 shows the image of the sample.

Table 2

. Specifications of samples.

Samples Code	Areal density (g/m²)	Thickness (mm)
200plain	600	5
200grids	550	5
200mesh	560	5
300plain	800	5
300grids	750	5
300mesh	760	5
400plain	1000	5
400grids	950	5
400mesh	960	5

Measurements

Weather resistance test

Hybrid geotextiles are trimmed into three sizes—100 mm ×100 mm, 150 mm × 150 mm and 180 mm × 25.4 mm. They are divided into three batches, which are then immersed and sealed in 1.5 L of 0.1 mol/L hydrochloric solutions at room temperature for 84 hours. Afterwards, they are removed and dried in order to prevent the evaporation of hydrochloric acid from eroding the machine. Samples are placed in an oven at 60°C for 6 hours and dried completely. Next, the three batches of samples are immersed and sealed in another 1.5 L of 0.1 mol/L NaOH solution at room temperature for 84 hours. Samples are likewise removed and dried in an oven at 60°C for 6 hours. The immersion in acid and alkali solutions is to simulate the degradation of geotextiles in the nature, and thereby examines their performances.

Tensile strength tests

An Instron 5969 (Instron, USA) is used to measure the tensile strength and break elongation of samples as speciﬁed in ASTM D5035-11 [19]. Five samples for each specification are tested at a tensile speed of 305 ± 13 mm/min. The distance between clamps is 76 mm and samples have a size of 180 mm × 25.4 mm.

Constant speed burst strength test

The burst strength of hybrid geotextiles is measured by An Instron 5969 (Instron, USA) with a rounded impact head. And burst process used a constant speed burst rate of 100 mm/min as specified in ASTM D3787 [20]. Samples have a size of 150 mm × 150 mm. Five samples for each specification are used for the test. The trimmed samples are placed and fixed between the upper and lower plates, after which the impact head bursts the sample and the maximal burst strength is recorded.

Constant speed puncture test

The puncture resistance of hybrid geotextiles is measured by An Instron 5969 (Instron, USA) at a specified rate of 508 mm/min as specified in ASTM F1342-05 [21] that measures the physical properties by means of a constant puncture rate. Moreover, this test standard is suitable for protective clothing materials, including plastic membranes, elastic membranes, coated fabrics, flexible materials, laminates, and textile materials. The size of samples is not specified with a premise that they can be fixed firmly in place by the upper and lower rings. In this study, samples are trimmed into 100 mm × 100 mm. Afterwards the puncture resistance is compared with tensile and burst properties, thereby determining the optimal manufacturing parameters.

Pore diameter measurement

The pore diameter of hybrid geotextiles is measured using the dry sieving method as specified in ASTM D4751 [22]. The process involves six steps. In Step 1, five samples for each specification are used for each size of test beads. The standard beads and samples should be wet as regulated for the test. In step 2, a sample is mounted over the sieve without the presence of wrinkles. In step 3, 50 g of beads at a smaller size are evenly spread over the sample. In step 4, the sieve frame, a sample, and a collection plate are attached firmly to a shaker, after which the sieve is shaken for ten minutes. In step 5, the shaker is turned off while the standard beads that penetrate the sample are recorded for the size. In step 6, a new sample is used and spread with beads at a greater size, after which step 2 to step 5 are repeated. For accuracy, the continuity of a specified size of beads for three samples in a row is required. Moreover, it is not allowed that the passing percent is lower than 5%.

Results and discussion

Effects of areal density and composition on hybrid geotextiles

Tensile properties based on areal density and composition

Figure 3 shows the tensile displacement-load curves. Based on Figure 3(a), regardless of the areal density of nylon fabrics, a 3 D mesh fabric provides hybrid geotextiles with tensile strength that is 3.7% greater than a glass fiber plain weave fabric and 21% greater than a glass fiber grid. This result is ascribed to the excellent elasticity of 3 D mesh fabrics. They withstand greater tensile strength than the other inner layers, glass fabric and glass grid. However, with a specified interlayer, hybrid geotextiles exhibit a lower tensile strength when the nylon fabrics have a lower areal density. The fibers of upper and bottom layers (nylon fabric) and those of the inner layers creates a greater interlocking between fibers during the needle-punching process, and the friction between the fibers increases during stretching, thus a greater tensile strength. The failure mechanism of tensile strength of sandwich composites is due to the slippage of yarns and breakage of fibers [23]. Figure 3(b) shows that with a specified interlayer, hybrid geotextiles can bear a greater tensile force when nylon fabrics have a greater areal density, because the tensile strength is proportional to the areal density [24,25]. Namely, when the number of fibers in the cutting section is increased, tensile strength is increased. In particular, the 400mesh hybrid geotextiles have the optimal tensile strength of 1119 N, which meets the requirement of 1100 N in GB/T 17639-2008.

Burst strength based on areal density and composition

Figures 4 and 5 individually show the images of fractured samples and the burst displacement-load curves. Figure 5(a) shows that all of the hybrid geotextiles exhibit a relatively higher maximum load, and specifically, the presence of a glass fiber plain weave fabric provides the geotextiles with 23% greater burst strength than the presence of a glass fiber grids or a 3 D mesh fabric. When the surface material is the same, the bursting strength of the inner layer determines the maximum load of the hybrid geotextiles. The inner layer is glass fiber fabric and glass fiber grids. The maximum load of bursting is higher than that of 3 D mesh fabric, because glass fibers have greater strength than polyester fibers. The bursting strength of glass fiber plain weave fabric is higher than that of glass fiber grids, because the plain weave structure can disperse a burst force more evenly than a grid structure and the hybrid geotextiles are capable of bearing pressures exerted from multiple directions. The burst strength has a failure mechanism that depends on the pullout and breakage of yarns and deformation of nonwoven fabrics [26]. Figure 4(a) and (b) illustrate the practical burst effect where the fibers are pushed and then generate friction against the impact head until the fibers are broken.

With other conditions remain specified, a greater areal density means that there is a greater number of fibers in the cutting section, which has a positive influence on the burst strength. This result is consistent with the finding of the study by Gautier et al. [27]. Figure 5(b) shows that with a specified interlayer type, the maximal burst strength of hybrid geotextiles is proportional to the areal density of the nylon top/bottom layers. The 400grids and 400mesh have the maximal burst strength of 1340 N, which outperforms the commercial geotextiles with a burst strength of 1200 N [8], while 400plain exhibits the maximal burst strength of 1664 N, indicating that the proposed hybrid geotextile in this study acquire remarkable burst strength.

Effects of areal density and constitutional materials on puncture performance

Figures 6 and 7 individually show the images of a punctured hybrid geotextile and the puncture displacement-load curves. Figure 7(a) shows that composed of a 3 D mesh fabric or a glass fiber plain weave fabric, the hybrid geotextiles have a comparable maximum puncture strength that is 36% greater than those composed of a glass fiber grid. Due to the inner layer of glass grid fabric grid strip is sparse, the spike probe with a smaller diameter can easily penetrate the fiber bundles for the hybrid geotextiles have a low puncture resistance. When losing the mobility, fibers start incurring an internal stress due to their interaction, which in turn increases the load electric resistance while increasing the area of the slope. At last, the failure of interaction among fibers creates new voids inside the material. When the stress exceeds the loading that fiber interaction can withstand, the spike probe renders a perforation in the material [28]. Based on Figure 5, the spike probe forces fibers from a contacting place to a neighboring place while it is fracturing some fibers, thereby forms a perforation. With a specified interlayer type, hybrid geotextiles exhibit a maximal puncture resistance that is proportional to the areal density of the nylon fabrics, which is attributed to an increase in the amount of fibers in the nonwoven fabrics [29]. Figure 7(b) shows that 200mesh exhibits a maximal puncture strength of 201 N, featuring a relatively greater resistance against the accumulated loading stress. Moreover, 300mesh and 300plain demonstrate a comparable puncture strength being 223 N, which is slightly greater than 300grids. A similar result is found with geotextiles composed of 400 g/m² nylon fabrics; however, 400mesh outperforms 400plain by 317 N slightly.

Moreover, with other parameters specified, a greater areal density increases the thickness of geotextiles, and thus obtains a greater puncture resistance [30]. Figure 6 shows the punctured sample. To sum up, it is the 3 D mesh fabric used as the interlayer that provides hybrid geotextiles with the maximal puncture resistance.

Acid/alkali resistance of hybrid geotextile

Effects of acid/alkali decomposition on tensile properties of hybrid geotextiles

Figure 8(a) shows the tensile displacement-load curves of the acid/alkali treated hybrid geotextiles. With a 3 D mesh fabric as an interlayer, the geotextiles have the maximal breaking elongation. The acid/alkali treated 200mesh has the optimal tensile strength that is 93%-147% higher than both of the acid/alkali treated 200plain and the acid/alkali treated 200grids. Moreover, the acid/alkali treated 300mesh has the lowest tensile strength of 268 N. the acid/alkali treated 400plain and the acid/alkali treated 400mesh have the tensile strength of 710 N, which is 130% greater than the acid/alkali treated 400grids.

Figure 8(b) shows that the tensile strength of 200mesh only descends by 18% after the acid/alkali treatment, whereas the tensile strength of 200plain weave fabric or 200grids descends about 50% correspondingly. Conversely, 300mesh has a considerably lower tensile strength than the other two groups after the acid/alkali treatment, which is 42%. However, the acid/alkali treated 400mesh remains to have the maximal tensile strength that is close to that of 400grids. The difference in the tensile strength of the acid/alkali treated 400mesh fabric group is 37%, which is more stable than the the acid/alkali treated 400grids.

Effects of acid/alkali decomposition on burst strength of hybrid geotextiles

Figure 9(a) and (b) shows the images of fractured acid/alkali treated samples after the burst test. The nylon surface layer of geotextile becomes uneven after acid and alkali treatment. Therefore, the fiber breaks at a short distance from the top of the cone during the burst test, which demonstrates a relatively smaller tensile strength than the non-treated groups. Figure 10(a) shows that the acid/alkali treated 200grids has the maximal breaking elongation of 45 mm and the acid/alkali treated 200mesh has the maximal burst strength of 783 N. Moreover, all of the three acid/alkali treated hybrid geotextiles have basically the same breaking elongation, but the acid/alkali treated 300plain has the maximal burst strength of 1051 N. Moreover, acid/alkali treated 400grids has the smallest breaking elongation and the acid/alkali treated 400mesh has the maximal burst strength of 1111 N.

Figure 10(b) shows that the difference in the acid/alkali treated 200grids has the maximal burst strength that drops considerably, and is 32%, which is lower than the maximal burst strength of the acid/alkali treated 200plain and the acid/alkali treated 200mesh. The glass fiber grids have a special structure, the leno structure, which makes the grid support less corrosive than the glass fiber plain weave fabric. The anti-bursting performance of the acid/alkali treated 300plain, 300grids, and 300mesh decreases as a result of the treatment and is between 15.5% and 17%. Due to the acid/alkali treatment, all of the acid/alkali treated 400plain, 400grids, and 400mesh exhibit lower burst strength, especially the acid/alkali treated 400mesh that has the least descending burst strength of 18%.

Effects of acid/alkali decomposition on puncture strength of hybrid geotextiles

Figure 11(a) and (b) show the images of the punctured acid/alkali treated hybrid geotextiles. The treated samples exhibit a smaller puncture hole than the non-treated groups because the spike probe penetrates and then breaks the fibers in contact without squeezing the fibers in the proximity [31]. Figure 12(a) shows that according to the areal density of the nylon fabrics, the acid/alkali treated 200mesh can bear the maximum puncture load of 161 N; the acid/alkali treated 300plain demonstrates the maximum puncture load while the acid/alkali treated 300mesh has the maximum breaking elongation of 33 mm. Moreover, the acid/alkali treated 400plain has the maximum puncture load of 239 N and the maximum breaking elongation of 33 mm. Figure 12(b) shows that after the acid/alkali treatment, 200plain exhibits the least decreasing maximum puncture load of 9%, which is relatively stable. By contrast, all of 300plain, 300grids, and 300mesh demonstrate a decrease in the puncture resistance due to the acid/alkali treatment. In particular, the acid/alkali treated 300plain shows the least decrease in the maximum puncture load of 25.5% so is the case for the acid/alkali treated 400plain, which has the least decrease in the maximum puncture load of 22%.

Pore diameter of hybrid geotextiles

Figure 13(a) to (c) show the pore diameter of hybrid geotextiles as related to the areal density of nylon fabrics. The pore diameter is O90 = 0.142 mm and O95 =0.230 mm for the areal density of nylon fabrics being 200 g/m², O90 = 0.117 mm and O95 = 0.166 mm for the areal density of nylon fabrics being 300 g/m², and O90 = 0.073 mm and O95 = 0.086 mm for the areal density of nylon fabrics being 400 g/m². The test results suggest that the pore diameter slowly decreases as a result of an increase in the areal density of nylon fabrics. With a greater pore diameter, hybrid geotextiles have a greater permeability coefficient, indicating that hybrid geotextiles have a greater permeability. Moreover, a low corresponding surface density has a negative influence on the strength.

Conclusion

In this study, 200 g/m², 300 g/m², and 400 g/m² of nylon fabrics are separately used as the top/bottom layers, and at the same time, a glass fiber plain weave fabric, a glass fiber grid, or a 3 D mesh fabric is used as the interlayer. The sandwich-structured laminates are needle punched into hybrid geotextiles, which are then examined, compared, and analyzed. The test results indicate that the mechanical properties of hybrid geotextiles are dependent on the areal density of nylon fabrics. A rise in the areal density has a positive influence on the tensile resistance, burst resistance, and puncture resistance. The type of interlayer also affects the properties of hybrid geotextiles significantly. Regardless of the areal density of nylon fabrics being 200 g/m², 300 g/m², and 400 g/m², hybrid geotextiles containing a glass fiber plain weave fabric demonstrate the highest bursting resistance, hybrid geotextiles containing a 3 D mesh fabric have the maximal tensile resistance and puncture resistance, and hybrid geotextiles containing a 3 D mesh fabric have optimal acid and alkali corrosion resistance. Moreover, the greater the areal density of nylon fabrics, the smaller the pore diameter of hybrid geotextiles. In conclusion, the design of the woven/nonwoven hybrid structure reinforces the performances and improves the downsides of the fabrics. Through the tensile test, puncture test and puncture test under normal condition and after acid and alkali corrosion, hybrid geotextiles containing 3 D mesh fabric have the best mechanical properties. This study primarily employs the puncture process that features an efficient production and a high yield, and provides the future mass production with convenience and a certain capacity.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Tianjin City (grant number 18JCQNJC03400); the Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province (grant numbers 2018J01504, 2018J01505); and the Program for Innovative Research Team in University of Tianjin (grant number TD13-5043).

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A study on design and properties of woven-nonwoven multi-layered hybrid geotextiles

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Experimentals

Materials

Preparation of samples

Measurements

Weather resistance test

Tensile strength tests

Constant speed burst strength test

Constant speed puncture test

Pore diameter measurement

Results and discussion

Effects of areal density and composition on hybrid geotextiles

Tensile properties based on areal density and composition

Burst strength based on areal density and composition

Effects of areal density and constitutional materials on puncture performance

Acid/alkali resistance of hybrid geotextile

Effects of acid/alkali decomposition on tensile properties of hybrid geotextiles

Effects of acid/alkali decomposition on burst strength of hybrid geotextiles

Effects of acid/alkali decomposition on puncture strength of hybrid geotextiles

Pore diameter of hybrid geotextiles

Conclusion

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

Funding

References