Abstract
This article describes the bias and discrimination that play a role in the lives of people viewed as different based on color, ethnicity, gender, language, appearance, age, religion, sexual orientation, or country of origin. Bias and discrimination play a major role in the difficulties faced by unserved and underserved populations such as migrants, refugees, asylum seekers, and others across the globe.
Keywords
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.Aljazeera News . (2019 ). A summary of attacks on Muslims in Western countries . https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/03/summary-attacks-muslims-western-countries-190316150024125.html
2.American Association of University Women . (2020 ). The STEM gap: Women and girls in science, technology, engineering and math . https://www.aauw.org/resources/research/the-stem-gap/
3.American Psychological Association . (2018 ). The psychology of hate crimes . https://www.apa.org/advocacy/interpersonal-violence/hate-crimes
4.Anti-Defamation League . (2020 ). Reports of anti-Asian assaults, harassment and hate crimes rise as coronavirus spreads . https://www.adl.org/blog/reports-of-anti-asian-assaults-harassment-and-hate-crimes-rise-as-coronavirus-spreads
5.
Arrocha
W. A.
(2019 ). Combating xenophobia and hate through compassionate migration: The present struggle of irregular migrants escaping fear and extreme poverty . Crime, Law, and Change , 71 , 245 –260 .
6.
Baddar
O.
(2018 ). Hate crimes continue to surge in America . Arab American Institute . https://www.aaiusa.org/hate_crimes_continue_to_surge_in_america
7.
Bariso
J.
(2018 ). There are actually 3 types of empathy: Here’s how they differ and how you can develop them all . https://www.inc.com/justin-bariso/there-are-actually-3-types-of-empathy-heres-how-they-differ-and-how-you-can-develop-them-all.html
8.
9.
Blondeel
K.
Sofia
de
Vasconcelos
S.
Claudia García-Moreno
C.
Stephenson
R.
Marleen Temmerman
M.
Igor Toskin
I.
(2018 ). Violence motivated by perception of sexual orientation and gender identity: A systematic review . Bulletin of the World Health Organization , 96 (1 ), 29 –41 .
10.Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development . (2015 ). Cyber violence against women and girls: A world-wide wake-up call . https://www.broadbandcommission.org/publication/cyber-violence-against-women/
11.Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism . (2021 ). Anti-Asian hate crime reported to police in America’s largest cities: 2019 & 2020 . https://www.csusb.edu/sites/default/files/FACT%20SHEET-%20Anti-Asian%20Hate%202020%20rev%203.21.21.pdf
12.
Cherry
K.
(2019 ). How does implicit bias influence behavior? Explanations and impacts of unconscious bias . https://www.verywellmind.com/implicit-bias-overview-4178401
13.
Citron
D. K.
(2016 ). Hate crimes in cyberspace . Harvard University Press .
14.
Cloke
K.
(2012 ). Stereotyping, bias, and prejudice in conflict resolution . https://www.scmediation.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/Ken-Cloke-Prejudice-Module-SCMA.pdf
15.
Daumeyer
N. M.
Onyeador
I. N.
Brown
X.
Richeson
J. A.
(2019 ). Consequences of attributing discrimination to implicit vs. explicit bias . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 84 , Article 103812.
16.
De Castro
J. E.
(2010 ). Mestizos/Mestizas . https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284187345_MestizosMestizas
17.
Delgado
R.
Stefancic
J.
(2017 ). Critical race theory: An introduction (3rd ed.). New York University Press .
18.
Deng
L.
Xu
S.
(2018 ). Adaptation of human skin color in various populations . BioMed Central , 155 (1 ), 1 –12 .
19.
ElObeid
A. S.
Kamal-Eldin
A.
Abdelhalim
M. A. K.
Haseeb
A. M.
(2017 ). Pharmacological properties of melanin and its function in health . Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology , 120 , 515 –522 .
20.European Network Against Racism . (2015 ). Afrophobia in Europe (ENAR Shadow Report 2014-2015). https://www.enar-eu.org/
21.
FitzGerald
C.
Martin
A.
Berner
D.
Hurst
S.
(2019 ). Interventions designed to reduce implicit prejudices and implicit stereotypes in real world contexts: A systematic review . BMC Psychology , 7 (1 ), Article 29.
22.Forced Migration Review . (2013 ). Sexual orientation and gender identity and the protection of forced migrants . https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/517eab7f4.pdf
23.
Gannon
M.
(2016 , February 5 ). Race is a social construct, scientists argue . LiveScience . https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/race-is-a-social-construct-scientists-argue/
24.
Gönültas
S.
Mulvey
K. L.
(2019 ). Social-developmental perspective on intergroup attitudes towards immigrants and refugees in childhood and adolescence: A roadmap from theory to practice for an inclusive society . Human Development , 63 , 90 –111 .
25.
Gonzalez
C. M.
Kim
M. Y.
Marantz
P. R.
(2014 ). Implicit bias and its relation to health disparities: A teaching program and survey of medical students . Teaching and Learning in Medicine , 26 (1 ), 64 –71 .
26.
Grech
H.
(2019 ). Impact of forced migration on communication and social adaptation . Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica , 71 , 137 –145 .
27.
Greene
J.
(2013 ). Moral tribes: Emotion, reason and the gap between us and them . The Penguin Press .
28.Harvard Divinity School . (2019 ). Why hate crimes are on the rise . https://hds.harvard.edu/news/2019/04/23/podcast-why-hate-crimes-are-rise
29.
Herrera
J.
(2019 , March 18 ). Most terrorist victims are Muslim . Pacific Standard . https://psmag.com/news/most-terrorist-victims-are-muslim
30.History.com Editors . (2019 ). Tulsa race massacre . https://www.history.com/topics/roaring-twenties/tulsa-race-massacre
31.Human Rights Campaign . (2018 ). FBI statistics show alarming increase in reported number of hate crimes . https://www.hrc.org/blog/new-fbi-statistics-show-alarming-increase-in-number-of-reported-hate-crimes
32.Human Rights Watch . (2012 ). The government could have stopped this . https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/burma0812webwcover_0.pdf
33.Human Rights Watch . (2020 ). World report 2020 . https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/world_report_download/hrw_world_report_2020_0.pdf
34.
35.Institute of Race Relations . (2020 ). Racial violence statistics . https://irr.org.uk/research/statistics/racial-violence/
36.International Organization for Migration . (2018 ). World migration report . https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/wmr_2018_en.pdf
37.
King
C.
(2019 ). Gods of the upper air: How a circle of renegade anthropologists reinvented race, sex, and gender in the twentieth century . Random House .
38.
Kolbert
E.
(2018 ). There’s no scientific basis for race-it’s a made-up label: It’s been used to define and separate people for millennia—But the concept of race is not grounded in genetics . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2018/04/race-genetics-science-africa/
39.Lancet Migration . (2020 ). Safeguarding the health and livelihoods of migrants . https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(20)30290-7/fulltext
40.
Levey
S.
Cheng
L. R. L.
Langdon
H. W.
(2013 ). The relationship between ethical principles and clinical practice in working with CLD populations . Speech and Hearing Review: A Bilingual Annual , 11 , 71 –104 .
41.
Levey
T. G.
(2018 ). Sexual harassment online: Shaming and silencing women in the digital age . Lynne Rienner Publishers .
42.
Massari
P.
(2021 ). New hate old history—Colloquy . The Graduate School of Arts & Sciences, Harvard University .
43.
Master
S. D.
Roy
M. K.
(2000 ). Xenophobia and the European Union . Comparative Politics , 32 (4 ), 419 –436 .
44.
McCann-Mortimer
P.
Augoustinos
M.
Lecouteur
A.
(2004 ). “Race” and the human genome project: Constructions of scientific legitimacy . Discourse & Society , 15 , 409 –432 .
45.Miriam Webster . (2020 ). The history of the word “xenophobia .” https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/a-short-history-of-xenophobia
46.New York Police Department . (2019 ). Hate crimes report . https://www1.nyc.gov/site/nypd/stats/reports-analysis/hate-crimes.page
47.
Nittle
N. K.
(2019 , March 13 ). Understanding the difference between race and ethnicity . ThoughtCo . https://www.thoughtco.com/difference-between-race-and-ethnicity-2834950
48.
Nordquist
R.
(2019 , July 17 ). Biased language definition and examples: Prejudiced, offensive, and hurtful words and phrases . ThoughtCo . https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-biased-language-1689168
49.
Nwabuzo
O.
(2015 ). Afrophobia in Europe (ENAR Shadow Report 2014-2015). European Network against Racism . https://manoteises.lt/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Shadowreport_afrophobia_2014-2015.pdf
50.OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights . (2018 ). Bias against members of other religions or beliefs . http://hatecrime.osce.org/what-hate-crime/bias-against-members-other-religions-or-beliefs
51.OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights . (2019 a). Anti-semitism . http://hatecrime.osce.org/what-hate-crime/anti-semitism
52.OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights . (2019 b). Bias against Muslims . http://hatecrime.osce.org/what-hate-crime/bias-against-muslims
53.
Pontiki
M.
Gavriilidou
M.
Gkoumas
G.
Piperidis
S.
(2020 ). Verbal Aggression as an indicator of xenophobic attitudes in Greek twitter during and after the financial crisis . Proceedings of LR4SSHOC: Workshop about Language Resources for the SSH Cloud (pp. 19 –26 ). Marseille, FR .
54.
Premack
R.
(2018 ). 14 Things people think are fine to say at work-but are actually racist, sexist, or offensive . https://www.businessinsider.com/microaggression-unconscious-bias-at-work-2018-6
55.
Ray
T.
(2019 ). The US isn’t safe from the trauma of caste bias . https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-03-08/us-isn-t-safe-trauma-caste-bias
56.
Roitman
K.
Oviedo
A.
(2017 ). Mestizo racism in Ecuador . Ethnic and Racial Studies , 40 (15 ), 2768 –2786 .
57.
Rojas
R.
Swales
V.
(2019 , September 30 ). 18 Transgender killing this year raise fears of an “epidemic.” The New York Times . https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/27/us/transgender-women-deaths.html
58.
Sawchuk
S.
(2021 ). What is critical race theory, and why is it under attack? Education week . https://www.edweek.org/leadership/what-is-critical-race-theory-and-why-is-it-under-attack/2021/05
59.School of Public Health, University of Minnesota . (2019 ). Examples of microaggressions . https://sph.umn.edu/site/docs/hewg/microaggressions.pdf
60.
Staples
B.
(2019 , October 12 ). How Italians became “White.” The New York Times . https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/10/12/opinion/columbus-day-italian-american-racism.html
61.Statista . (2021 ). Number of people shot to death by the police in the United States from 2017 to 2021, by race . https://www.statista.com/statistics/585152/people-shot-to-death-by-us-police-by-race/
62.
Stubbe
D. E.
(2020 ). Practicing cultural competence and cultural humility in the care of diverse patients . Focus , 18 (1 ), 49 –51 . https://focus.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.focus.20190041
63.
Sue
D. W.
(2010 ). Microaggressions, marginality and oppression . In
D. W.
Sue
(Ed.), Microaggressions and marginality (pp. 3 –22 ). Wiley .
64.
Tyner
A. R.
(2019 ). Unconscious bias, implicit bias, and microaggressions: What can we do about them? https://www.americanbar.org/groups/gpsolo/publications/gp_solo/2019/july-august/unconscious-bias-implicit-bias-microaggressions-what-can-we-do-about-them/
65.United Nations . (2018 ). Prejudice and discrimination: Barriers to social inclusion . Department of Economic and Social Affairs Social Inclusion . https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/2018/02/prejudice-and-discrimination/
66.United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization . (2015 ). Cyber violence against women and girls: A world-wide wake-up call . https://www.broadbandcommission.org/publication/cyber-violence-against-women/
67.United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues . (2020 ). Who are indigenous peoples? https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/5session_factsheet1.pdf
68.Vanderbilt University . (2020 ). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, & intersex life . https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lgbtqi/
69.
Wood
J.
(2020 ). 3 things to know about women in STEM . World Economic Forum . https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/02/stem-gender-inequality-researchers-bias/
70.
Yadufashije
C.
Samuel
R.
(2019 ). Genetic and environmental factors in skin color determination . African Journal of Biological Sciences , 1 (2 ), 51 –54 .
71.
72.
Ziersch
A.
Due
C.
Walsh
M.
(2020 ). Discrimination: A health hazard for people from refugee and asylum-seeking backgrounds resettled in Australia . BioMed Central , 20 , 1 –14 .