Intimate partner violence (IPV) against pregnant women negatively impacts women’s and infants’ health. Yet inconsistent results have been found regarding whether pregnancy increases or decreases the risk of IPV. To answer this question, we systematically searched for studies that provided data on IPV against women before pregnancy, during pregnancy, and after childbirth. Nineteen studies met our selection criteria. We meta-analyzed the nineteen studies for the pooled prevalence of IPV across the three periods and examined study characteristics that moderate the prevalence. Results showed the pooled prevalence estimates of IPV were 21.2% before pregnancy, 12.8% during pregnancy and 14.7% after childbirth. Although these findings suggest a reduction in IPV during pregnancy, our closer evaluation of the prevalence of IPV after childbirth revealed that the reduction does not appear to persist. The prevalence of IPV increased from 12.8% within the first year after childbirth to 24.0% beyond the first year. Taken together, we should not assume pregnancy protects women from IPV, as IPV tends to persist across a longer-term period. Future studies are needed to investigate if IPV transits into other less obvious types of violence during pregnancy. Moderator analyses showed the prevalence estimates significantly varied across countries by income levels and regions.
AbotaT. L.GasheF. E.DeyessaN. (2022). Multilevel analysis of factors associated with perinatal intimate partner violence among postpartum population in Southern Ethiopia. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 19013. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-23645-4
2.
AbujilbanS.MrayanL.Al-ModallalH.DamraJ. K. (2022). Physical intimate partner violence and maternal outcomes in a hospital-based sample of pregnant women in Jordan. Florence Nightingale Journal of Nursing, 30(3), 245–252. https://doi.org/10.5152/FNJN.2022.20072
3.
AgarwalS.PrasadR.MantriS.ChandrakarR.GuptaS.BabhulkarV.SrivastavS.JaiswalA.WanjariM. B. (2023). A comprehensive review of intimate partner violence during pregnancy and its adverse effects on maternal and fetal health. Cureus, 15(5): e39262. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.39262
4.
BorensteinM.HedgesL. V.HigginsJ. P.RothsteinH. R. (2010). A basic introduction to fixed-effect and random-effects models for meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods, 1(2), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.12
5.
BlountA. J.AdamsC. R.Anderson-BerryA. L.HansonC.SchneiderK.PendyalaG. (2021). Biopsychosocial factors during the perinatal period: Risks, preventative factors, and implications for healthcare professionals. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(15), 8206. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158206
6.
BrownS. J.GartlandD.DonathS.MacArthurC. (2012). Fecal incontinence during the first 12 months postpartum: Complex causal pathways and implications for clinical practice. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 119(2 Pt 1), 240–249. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e318242b1f7
7.
BrownS. J.MensahF.GialloR.WoolhouseH.HegartyK.NicholsonJ. M.GartlandD. (2020). Intimate partner violence and maternal mental health ten years after a first birth: An Australian prospective cohort study of first-time mothers. Journal of Affective Disorders, 262, 247–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.015
ChanK. L.BrownridgeD. A.FongD. Y.TiwariA.LeungW. C.HoP. C. (2012). Violence against pregnant women can increase the risk of child abuse: A longitudinal study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(4), 275–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.12.003
10.
ChanK. L.LoC. K.HoF. K.LeungW. C.YeeB. K.IpP. (2019). The association between intimate partner violence against women and newborn telomere length. Translational Psychiatry, 9(1), 239. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-019-0575-6
11.
ChanK. L.LoC. K. M.LuY.HoF. K.LeungW. C.IpP. (2021). Intimate partner violence before pregnancy, during pregnancy, and after childbirth: A new conceptualization highlighting individual changes in violence against pregnant women over time. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(13–14), NP12111–NP12132. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260521997451
12.
ChanY. Y.RosmanA.AhmadN. A.Mohamad KasimN.Abd RazakM. A.OmarM.Abdul AzizF. A.AwaluddinS. M.YusofM.JamaluddinR.Ab WahabN. A.RosliN. H. (2019). Prevalence and factors associated with intimate partner violence among postpartum women attending government primary health care clinics in Malaysia. Journal of Family Violence, 34(2), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-018-0014-0
13.
ChenY.CheungS.HuangC. C. (2022). Intimate partner violence during pregnancy: Effects of maternal depression symptoms and parenting on teen depression symptoms. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(9–10), NP7034–NP7056. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520967754
14.
ChenX. Y.LoC. K. M.HoF. K.LeungW. C.IpP.ChanK. L. (2022). Changing patterns of intimate partner violence against pregnant women: A three-year longitudinal study. International Journal of Environonmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), 14397. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114397
15.
CizmeliC.LobelM.HarlandK. K.SaftlasA. (2018). Stability and change in types of intimate partner violence across pre-pregnancy, pregnancy, and the postpartum period. Women’s Reproductive Health (Phila), 5(3), 153–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/23293691.2018.1490084
16.
DaoudN.UrquiaM. L.O’CampoP.HeamanM.JanssenP. A.SmylieJ.ThiessenK. (2012). Prevalence of abuse and violence before, during, and after pregnancy in a national sample of Canadian women. American Journal of Public Health, 102(10), 1893–1901. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300843
17.
DevriesK. M.KishorS.JohnsonH.StocklH.BacchusL. J.Garcia-MorenoC.WattsC. (2010). Intimate partner violence during pregnancy: Analysis of prevalence data from 19 countries. Reproductive Health Matters, 18(36), 158–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(10)36533-5
18.
DrexlerK. A.Quist-NelsonJ.WeilA. B. (2022). Intimate partner violence and trauma-informed care in pregnancy. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology MFM, 4(2), 100542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajogmf.2021.100542
19.
EggerM.SmithG. D.SchneiderM.MinderC. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629–634.
20.
ElderJr.,G. H.ShanahanM. J. (2007). The life course and human development. In Handbook of child psychology (vol. 1). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
21.
Faisal-CuryA.MenezesP. R.d’OliveiraA. F. P. L.SchraiberL. B.LopesC. S. (2013). Temporal relationship between intimate partner violence and postpartum depression in a sample of low income women. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 17(7), 1297–1303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-012-1127-3
22.
FeltnerC.WallaceI.BerkmanN.KistlerC. E.MiddletonJ. C.BarclayC.HigginbothamL.GreenJ. T.JonasD. E. (2018). Screening for intimate partner violence, elder abuse, and abuse of vulnerable adults: Evidence report and systematic review for the US preventive services task force. JAMA, 320(16), 1688–1701. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.13212
23.
Garcia-MorenoC.JansenH. A.EllsbergM.HeiseL.WattsC. H. Health, & WHO Multi-country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence against Women Study Team. (2006). Prevalence of intimate partner violence: Findings from the WHO multi-country study on women’s health and domestic violence. Lancet, 368(9543), 1260–1269. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69523-8
24.
GargS.SinghM. M.RustagiR.EngtipiK.BalaI. (2019). Magnitude of domestic violence and its socio-demographic correlates among pregnant women in Delhi. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 8(11), 3634–3639. https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_597_19
25.
GartlandD.ConwayL. J.GialloR.MensahF. K.CookF.HegartyK.HerrmanH.NicholsonJ.ReillyS.HiscockH.SciberrasE.BrownS. J. (2021). Intimate partner violence and child outcomes at age 10: A pregnancy cohort. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 106(11), 1066–1074. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2020-320321
26.
GerberM. R. (2019). Trauma-informed healthcare approaches: A guide for primary care. Springer.
27.
GuoS. F.WuJ. L.QuC. Y.YanR. Y. (2004). Domestic abuse on women in China before, during, and after pregnancy. Chinese Medical Journal (English), 117(3), 331–336.
28.
HalimN.BeardJ.MesicA.PatelA.HendersonD.HibberdP. (2018). Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and perinatal mental disorders in low and lower middle income countries: A systematic review of literature, 1990–2017. Clinical Psychology Review, 66, 117–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.11.004
29.
HatcherA. M.BrittainK.PhillipsT. K.ZerbeA.AbramsE. J.MyerL. (2021). Longitudinal association between intimate partner violence and viral suppression during pregnancy and postpartum in South African women. AIDS, 35(5), 791–799. https://doi.org/10.1097/qad.0000000000002796
30.
HedinL. W. (2000). Postpartum, also a risk period for domestic violence. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology, 89(1), 41–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0301-2115(99)00164-5
31.
HenriksenL.KisaS.LukasseM.FlaathenE. M.MortensenB.KarlsenE.Garnweidner-HolmeL. (2023). Cultural sensitivity in interventions aiming to reduce or prevent intimate partner violence during pregnancy: A scoping review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(1), 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1177/152483802110217
HowellK. H.Miller-GraffL. E.HasselleA. J.ScraffordK. E. (2017). The unique needs of pregnant, violence-exposed women: A systematic review of current interventions and directions for translational research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 34, 128–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.01.021
34.
IslamM. J.BroidyL.MazerolleP.BairdK.MazumderN. (2018). Exploring intimate partner violence before, during, and after pregnancy in Bangladesh. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(7–8), 3584–3612. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518775753
35.
JacksonC. L.CiciollaL.CrnicK. A.LueckenL. J.GonzalesN. A.CoonrodD. V. (2015). Intimate partner violence before and during pregnancy: Related demographic and psychosocial factors and postpartum depressive symptoms among Mexican American women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(4), 659–679. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514535262
36.
JamesP. B.RenzahoA. M. N.MwanriL.MillerI.WardleJ.GatwiriK.LaucheR. (2022). The prevalence of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder among African migrants: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 317, 114899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114899
LoC. K. M.ChanK. L.YuL.ChuiW. W. H.IpP. (2023). Long-term effects of psychosocial interventions on internet-related disorders: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107465
39.
MacyR. J.MartinS. L.KupperL. L.CasanuevaC.GuoS. (2007). Partner violence among women before, during, and after pregnancy: Multiple opportunities for intervention. Women’s Health Issues, 17(5), 290–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.whi.2007.03.006
40.
MartinS. L.MackieL.KupperL. L.BuescherP. A.MoraccoK. E. (2001). Physical abuse of women before, during, and after pregnancy. JAMA, 285(12), 1581–1584. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.12.1581
41.
Martin de las HerasS.VelascoC.Luna-Del-CastilloJ. D.KhanK. S. (2019). Breastfeeding avoidance following psychological intimate partner violence during pregnancy: A cohort study and multivariate analysis. BJOG, 126(6), 778–783. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.15592
42.
McIntoshJ. E.TanE. S.LevendoskyA. A.Holtzworth-MunroeA. (2021). Mothers’ experience of intimate partner violence and subsequent offspring attachment security ages 1–5 years: A meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 22(4), 885–899. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019888560
43.
McKayM. T.CannonM.ChambersD.ConroyR. M.CoughlanH.DoddP.HealyC.O’DonnellL.ClarkeM. C. (2021). Childhood trauma and adult mental disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 143(3), 189–205. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13268
44.
McKelvieS.LeodoroB.SalaT.TranT.FisherJ. (2020). Prevalence, patterns, and determinants of intimate partner violence experienced by women who are pregnant in Sanma Province, Vanuatu. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(9–10), NP7632–NP7653. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520969235
45.
MohammadhosseiniE.SahraeanL.BahramiT. (2010). Domestic abuse before, during and after pregnancy in Jahrom, Islamic Republic of Iran. East Mediterranean Health Journal, 16(7), 752–758.
46.
MojahedA.AlaidarousN.KoppM.PogarellA.ThielF.Garthus-NiegelS. (2021). Prevalence of intimate partner violence among intimate partners during the perinatal period: A narrative literature review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 601236. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.601236
47.
MuldoonK. A.DenizeK. M.TalaricoR.BoisvertC.FrankO.HarveyA. L. J.Rennicks WhiteR.FellD. B.O’Hare-GordonM. A.GuoY.MurphyM. S. Q.CorsiD. J.SampselK.WenS. W.WalkerM. C.El-ChaarD. (2021). COVID-19 and perinatal intimate partner violence: A cross-sectional survey of pregnant and postpartum individuals in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Open, 11(5), e049295. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-049295
48.
NavarreteL.NietoL.LaraM. A. (2021). Intimate partner violence and perinatal depression and anxiety: Social support as moderator among Mexican women. Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare, 27, 100569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2020.100569
49.
Román-GálvezR. M.Martín-PeláezS.Fernández-FélixB. M.ZamoraJ.KhanK. S.Bueno-CavanillasA. (2021). Worldwide prevalence of intimate partner violence in pregnancy. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Public Health, 9, 738459. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.738459
50.
SalazarM.ValladaresE.OhmanA.HögbergU. (2009). Ending intimate partner violence after pregnancy: Findings from a community-based longitudinal study in Nicaragua. BMC Public Health, 9, 350. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-9-350
51.
SardinhaL.Maheu-GirouxM.StocklH.MeyerS. R.Garcia-MorenoC. (2022). Global, regional, and national prevalence estimates of physical or sexual, or both, intimate partner violence against women in 2018. Lancet, 399(10327), 803–813. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02664-7
52.
ScribanoP. V.StevensJ.KaizarE. (2013). The effects of intimate partner violence before, during, and after pregnancy in nurse visited first time mothers. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 17(2), 307–318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-012-0986-y
53.
SerpeloniF.RadtkeK. M.HeckerT.SillJ.VukojevicV.de AssisS. G.SchauerM.ElbertT.NättD. (2019). Does prenatal stress shape postnatal resilience?—An epigenome-wide study on violence and mental health in humans. Frontiers in Genetics, 10, 269. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.00269
54.
ShoffnerD. H. (2008). We don’t like to think about it: Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and postpartum. The Journal of Perinatal & Neonatal Nursing, 22(1), 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.JPN.0000311874.30828.4e
55.
SilvaE. P.LudermirA. B.AraújoT. V. B. D.ValongueiroS. A. (2011). Frequency and pattern of intimate partner violence before, during and after pregnancy. Revista de Saude Publica, 45(6), 1044–1053. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0034-89102011005000074
56.
StakeS.AhmedS.TolW.AhmedS.BegumN.KhanamR.HarrisonM.BaquiA. H. (2020). Prevalence, associated factors, and disclosure of intimate partner violence among mothers in rural Bangladesh. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 39(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-020-00223-w
TaillieuT. L.BrownridgeD. A. (2010). Violence against pregnant women: Prevalence, patterns, risk factors, theories, and directions for future research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(1), 14–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.07.013
59.
TenkorangE. Y.OwusuA. Y. (2018). A life course understanding of domestic and intimate partner violence in Ghana. Child Abuse & Neglect, 79, 384–394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.02.027
60.
TranD. T. T.MurrayL.Van VoT. (2022). Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and maternal and child health outcomes: A scoping review of the literature from low-and-middle income countries from 2016–2021. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 22(1), 315. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-022-04604-3
61.
Van ParysA. S.DeschepperE.MichielsenK.TemmermanM.VerstraelenH. (2014). Prevalence and evolution of intimate partner violence before and during pregnancy: A cross-sectional study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 14, 294. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-14-294
62.
Van ParysA. S.VerhammeA.TemmermanM.VerstraelenH. (2014). Intimate partner violence and pregnancy: A systematic review of interventions. PloS One, 9(1), e85084. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085084
63.
WangT.LiuY.LiZ.LiuK.XuY.ShiW.ChenL. (2017). Prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) during pregnancy in China: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 12(10), e0175108. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175108
WhiteS. J.SinJ.SweeneyA.SalisburyT.WahlichC.Montesinos GuevaraC. M.GillardS.BrettE.AllwrightL.IqbalN.KhanA.PerotC.MarksJ.MantovaniN. (2023). Global prevalence and mental health outcomes of intimate partner violence among women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380231155529
66.
XuX.ZhuF.O’CampoP.KoenigM. A.MockV.CampbellJ. (2005). Prevalence of and risk factors for intimate partner violence in China. American Journal of Public Health, 95(1), 78–85. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2003.023978
67.
YohannesK.AbebeL.KisiT.DemekeW.YimerS.FeyisoM.AyanoG. (2019). The prevalence and predictors of domestic violence among pregnant women in Southeast Oromia, Ethiopia. Reproductive Health, 16(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-019-0694-9
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
