Not Your Parents’ Organization? Human Resource Development Practices for Sustainable Flex Work Environments

Abstract

The Problem.

Everything we know and understand about flexible work arrangements (FWAs) revolves around extant research exploring the effects and effectiveness of FWAs based on samples in which organizations and/or employees freely adopted their use. In a post COVID-19 world, organizations implemented FWAs and employees who may not have been prepared for or desired such arrangements. This has resulted in implementing FWAs in situations where the job, culture, or person does not “support” FWAs.

The Solution.

We suggest the economic uncertainty of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic should shift Human Resource Development (HRD) attention to managing the organizational climate of work and work expectations, specifically with regard to FWAs. We discuss how HRD practitioners can help, specifically by preparing managers for enhanced communication and feedback, as well as through supporting employee development via proactive job crafting, to better prepare managers and workers to accept and flourish in FWAs both short and long term.

The Stakeholders.

The stakeholders for this article include decision-makers in organizations interested in driving success through long-term initiatives rooted in developing human capital. In addition, this article should resonate with HRD professionals interested in working with managers and employees to systematically build sustainable FWA systems.

Keywords

flexible work culture climate job crafting human resource development

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aguinis

(2019). Performance management (4th ed.). Chicago Business Press.

Anderson

S. E.

Coffey

B. S.

Byerly

R. T.

(2002). Formal organizational initiatives and informal workplace practices: Links to work- family conflict and job-related outcomes. Journal of Management, 28(6), 787–810.

Ashforth

B. E.

Kreiner

G. E.

Fugate

(2000). All in a day’s work: Boundaries and micro role transitions. Academy of Management Review, 25(3), 472–491.

Atkinson

Sandiford

(2016). An exploration of older worker flexible working arrangements in smaller firms. Human Resource Management Journal, 26(1), 12–28.

Baltes

B. B.

Briggs

T. E.

Huff

J. W.

Wright

J. A.

Neuman

G. A.

(1999). Flexible and compressed workweek schedules: A meta-analysis of their effects on work-related criteria. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(4), 496–513. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.84.4.496

Bandura

(1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall.

Bandura

(1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.

Batt

Valcour

P. M.

(2003). Human resources practices as predictors of work–family outcomes and employee turnover. Industrial Relations, 42(2), 189–220.

Blair-Loy

Wharton

A. S.

(2002). Employees’ use of work-family policies and the workplace social context. Social Forces, 80(3), 813–845.

10.

Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2020). National compensation survey (Table 39). https://www.bls.gov/ncs/ebs/benefits/2020/employee-benefits-in-the-united-states-march-2020.pdf

11.

Burroughs

S. M.

Eby

L. T.

(1998). Psychological sense of community at work: A measurement system and explanatory framework. Journal of Community Psychology, 26(6), 509–532.

12.

Butler

Gasser

Smart

(2004). A social-cognitive perspective on using family-friendly benefits. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65(1), 57–70.

13.

Chen

Fulmer

I. S.

(2018). Fine-tuning what we know about employee’s experience with flexible work arrangements and their job attitudes. Human Resource Management Review, 57(1), 381–395.

14.

Collins

Landivar

L. C.

Ruppanner

Scarborough

W. J.

(2021). COVID-19 and the gender gap in work hours. Gender, Work and Organization, 28, 101–112.

15.

Conger

(2020). Facebook starts planning for permanent remote workers. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/21/technology/facebook-remote-work-coronavirus.html

16.

Crichton

(2020). Facebook doubles down on work-from-office with massive NYC lease near Penn Station. Tech Crunch. https://techcrunch.com/2020/08/04/facebook-nyc-lease/

17.

de Menezes

L. M.

Kelliher

(2011). Flexible working and performance: A systematic review of the evidence for a business case. International Journal of Management Reviews, 13(4), 452–474.

18.

de Menezes

L. M.

Kelliher

(2017). Flexible working, individual performance, and employee attitudes: Comparing formal and informal arrangements. Human Resource Management, 56(6), 1051–1070.

19.

Demerouti

Bakker

A. B.

Nachreiner

Schaufeli

W. B.

(2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512.

20.

Denison

D. R.

(1996). What is the difference between organizational culture and organizational climate? A native’s point of view on a decade of paradigm wars. Academy of Management Review, 21(3), 619–654.

21.

Eastin

M. S.

LaRose

(2000). Internet self-efficacy and the psychology of the digital divide. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 6(1). https://academic.oup.com/jcmc/article/6/1/JCMC611/4584219 on 10-20-20

22.

Eby

L. T.

Casper

W. J.

Lockwood

Bordeaux

Brinley

(2005). Work and family research in IO/OB: Content analysis and review of the literature (1980–2002). Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66(1), 124–197.

23.

Eversole

B. A. W.

Venneberg

D. L.

Crowder

C. L.

(2012). Creating a flexible organizational culture to attract and retain talented workers across generations. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 14(4), 607–625.

24.

Fay

M. J.

Kline

S. L.

(2011). Coworker relationships and informal communication in high-intensity telecommuting. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 39(2), 144–163.

25.

Finn

Donovan

(2013). PwC’s NextGen: A global generational study: Evolving talent strategy to match the new workforce reality. http://www.pwc.com/en_GX/gx/hr-management-services/pdf/pwc-nextgen-study-2013.pdf

26.

Ford

R. C.

Piccolo

R. F.

Ford

L. R.

(2017). Strategies for building effective virtual teams: Trust is key. Business Horizons, 60(1), 25–34.

27.

Gajendran

R. S.

Harrison

D. A.

(2007). The good, the bad, and the unknown about telecommuting: Meta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(6), 1524–1541.

28.

Gambles

Lewis

Rapoport

(2006). The myth of work-life balance. John Wiley and Sons.

29.

Golden

T. D.

Veiga

J. F.

Simsek

(2005). Telecommuting’s differential impact of Work-Family Conflict: Is there no place like home? Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(6), 1340–1350.

30.

Gregory

Milner

(2009). Work-life balance: A matter of choice. Gender, Work & Organization, 16(1), 1–13.

31.

Gurstein

(2001). Wired to the world: Chained to the home: Telework in daily life. UBC Press.

32.

Hackman

J. R.

Oldham

G. R.

(1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16(2), 250–279.

33.

Hsu

Horsley

(2020). Enough already: Multiple demands causing women to abandon workforce. https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/10/02/919517914/enough-already-multiple-demands-causing-women-to-abandon-workforce

34.

James

L. R.

Jones

A. P.

(1974). Organizational climate: A review of theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 81(12), 1096–1112. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037511

35.

Jones

A. P.

James

L. R.

(1979). Psychological climate: Dimensions and relationships of individual and aggregated work environment perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 23(2), 201–250.

36.

Kelly

E. L.

Kalev

(2006). Managing flexible work arrangements in US organizations: Formalized discretion or ‘aright to ask.’ Socio-Economic Review, 4(3), 379–416.

37.

Kelly

E. L.

Moen

(2007). Rethinking the clockwork of work: Why schedule control may pay off at work and at home. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 9(4), 487–506.

38.

Kluger

A. N.

DeNisi

(1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284.

39.

Kooij

de Lange

Jansen

Dikkers

(2008). Older workers’ motivation to continue to work: Five meanings of age: A conceptual review. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(4), 364–394.

40.

Kraut

R. E.

(1989). Telecommuting: The trade-offs of home work. Journal of Communication, 39(3), 19–47.

41.

Lambert

A. D.

Marler

J. H.

Gueutal

H. G.

(2008). Individual differences: Factors affecting employee utilization of flexible work arrangements. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73(1), 107–117.

42.

Lee

M. D.

MacDermid

S. M.

Williams

M. L.

Buck

M. L.

O’Sullivan

S. L.

(2002). Contextual factors in the success of reduced-load work arrangements among managers and professionals. Human Resource Management, 41(2), 209–223.

43.

McCarthy

Garavan

(2006). Post feedback development perceptions: Applying the theory of planned behavior. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 17(3), 245–267.

44.

Moore

(2006). Homeworking and work–life balance: does it add to quality of life? European Review of Applied Psychology, 56, 5–13.

45.

Munn

S. L.

(2013). Unveiling the work-life system: The influence of work-life balance on meaningful work. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 15(4), 401–417.

46.

Ostroff

Kinicki

A. J.

Muhammad

R. S.

(2013). Organizational culture and climate. In Schmitt

N. W.

Highhouse

Weiner

I. B.

(Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 643–676). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

47.

Putzier

(2020). REI built an elaborate HQ. Because of Covid-19, the outdoor retailer wants to sell it. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/rei-built-an-iconic-hq-because-of-covid-19-the-outdoor-retailer-wants-to-sell-it-11597263188

48.

Raghuram

Wiesenfeld

Garud

(2003). Technology enabled work: The role of self-efficacy in determining telecommuter adjustment and structuring behavior. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63(2), 180–198.

49.

Rau

B. L.

Hyland

M. M.

(2002). Role conflict and flexible work arrangements: The effects on applicant attraction. Personnel Psychology, 55(1), 111–136.

50.

Rentsch

J. R.

(1990). Climate and culture: Interaction and qualitative differences in organizational meanings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(6), 668–681.

51.

Rudolph

C. W.

Baltes

B. B.

(2016). Age and health jointly moderate the influence of flexible work arrangements on work engagement: Evidence from two empirical studies. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(1), 40–58.

52.

Rudolph

C. W.

Katz

Lavigne

Zacher

(2017). Job crafting: A meta-analysis of relationships with individual differences, job characteristics, and work outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 102, 112–138.

53.

Schein

E. H.

(1990). Organizational culture. American Psychologist, 45(2), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.45.2.109

54.

Schein

E. H.

(2000). Sense and nonsense about culture and climate. In Ashkanasy

N. M.

Wilderom

C. P. M.

Peterson

M. F.

(Eds.), Handbook of organizational culture & climate (pp. xxiii–xxx). Sage.

55.

Schneider

(2000). The psychological life of organizations. In Ashkanasy

N. M.

Wilderom

C. P. M.

Peterson

M. F.

(Eds.), Handbook of organizational culture & climate (pp. xvii–xxi). Sage.

56.

Schneider

Ehrhart

M. G.

Macey

W. A.

(2011). Perspectives on organizational climate and culture. In Zedeck

(Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 373–414). American Psychological Association.

57.

Shamir

Salomon

(1985). Work-at-home and the quality of working life. Academy of Management Review, 10(3), 455–464.

58.

Shockley

K. M.

Allen

T. D.

(2007). When flexibility helps: Another look at the availability of flexible work arrangements and work–family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 71(3), 479–493.

59.

Shockley

K. M.

Allen

T. D.

(2010). Investigating the missing link in flexible work arrangement utilization: An individual difference perspective. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76(1), 131–142.

60.

Society for Human Resource Management. (2020). Full poll results: Telework in the time of COVID-19. https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-news/pages/poll-telework-coronavirus-full-results.aspx

61.

Spreitzer

G. M.

Cameron

Garrett

(2017). Alternative work arrangements: Two images of the new world of work. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology, 4, 473–499.

62.

Swanberg

J. E.

McKechnie

S. P.

Ojha

M. U.

James

J. B.

(2011). Schedule control, supervisor support and work engagement: a winning combination for workers in hourly jobs? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(3), 613–624.

63.

Tims

Bakker

A. B.

(2010). Job crafting: Towards a new model of individual job redesign. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(2), 1–9.

64.

Thomas

L. T.

Ganster

(1995). Impact of family-supportive work variables on work–family conflict and strain: A control perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(1), 6–15.

65.

Thompson

C. A.

Beauvais

L. L.

Lyness

K. S.

(1999). When work–family benefits are not enough: The influence of work–family culture on benefit utilization, organizational attachment, and work–family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54(3), 392–415.

66.

Thompson

L. F.

Aspinwall

K. R.

(2009). The recruitment value of work life benefits. Personnel Review, 38(2), 195–210.

67.

Thompson

R. J.

Payne

S. C.

Taylor

A. B.

(2015). Applicant attraction to flexible work arrangements: Separating the influence of flextime and flexplace. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 88(4), 726–749.

68.

Trent

Smith

Wood

(1994). Telecommuting: Stress and social support. Psychological Reports, 74, 1312–1314.

69.

Wayne

J. H.

Casper

W. J.

(2016). Why having a family-supportive culture, not just policies, matters to male and female job seekers: An examination of work-family conflict, values, and self-interest. Sex Roles, 75(9–10), 459–475.

70.

Wrzesniewski

Dutton

J. E.

(2001). Crafting a job: Revisioning employees as active crafters of their work. Academy of Management Review, 26(2), 179–201.

71.

Youngcourt

S. S.

Leiva

P. I.

Jones

R. G.

(2007). Perceived purposes of performance appraisal: Correlates of individual-and position-focused purposes on attitudinal outcomes. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 18(3), 315–343.