Abstract
This monograph analyzes online coverage and social media posts from five professional athletes—Simone Biles, Serena Williama, Naomi Osaka, Chloe Kim, and Gracie Gold—to sheds light on the journalistic and individual narratives around athletes, performance, goals as these intersect with mental health. Online news and entertainment media’s general representation of athletes frequently emphasizes victory with a focus on outcomes, often overshadowing the athletes’ well-being. Using social identity and framing theories, the study identifies narratives in social and online media, emphasizing the storytelling components related to mental health, as well as what athletes express as potential causes of the mental health issues they are experiencing, especially intense competition, physical condition, media pressure, and a general lack of mental health awareness in sports. The study’s examination of how athletes use their social media platforms to help journalists craft their stories offers a deeper understanding of their mental health stories beyond the basic win-or-lose narrative. We advocate for a paradigm shift, urging recognition of athletes as individuals with vulnerabilities who deserve supportive environments.
Over the last decade, many professional athletes have made public statements about their mental health. For instance, Michael Phelps, who has won 28 Olympic medals (23 of them gold medals), stated that he started experiencing depression following the close of the 2004 Olympic Games and again after the 2008 Olympics. Only in 2014 did he begin to put the pieces together and realize what he had felt over the years and after the Olympic Games was in fact depression; at that point, he went public with his personal story. Olympic athletes Apolo Ohno (speed skating), Shaun White (snowboarding), Bode Miller (skiing), Lolo Jones (track and field), and Sasha Cohen (figure skating) have likewise gone public about their mental health struggles before, during, and after Olympic competition.
A 2019 HBO “Weight of Gold” documentary featured Phelps as well as other Olympic athletes who were willing to go public about their mental health struggles. In this documentary and concurrently on their social media channels, these featured athletes began to tell a rich story about athletes and mental health. Some journalists have noted that Phelps’ public statements about his own mental health changed the narrative for other athletes experiencing similar struggles. They argue that Phelps opened the door for other athletes to speak publicly about their own struggles (Drehs, 2020; Hughes, 2018; Medaris, 2021). Between the time Phelps spoke publicly and the airing of the documentary, many of the athletes started to speak out about the mental health issues they were facing. Some spoke out as recently as the U.S. National Gymnastics Championships in 2023. The “Weight of Gold” documentary encourages individuals, especially athletes, to acknowledge and embrace their vulnerabilities. Unfortunately, people sometimes recognize that an athlete was grappling with depression only after a tragic event, such as suicide.
For instance, Jeret “Speedy” Peterson, an aerial skier, died by suicide in 2011, a year after winning a silver medal in the Olympics (Myers, 2020). Peterson’s first suicide attempt, in 2007, and several DUI’s drew media attention, but he never publicly disclosed that he had struggled with depression for over a decade. Only after news of his suicide broke did audiences learn of his struggles with depression. Adam Hirschfield, writing empathetically for The Bleacher Report after Peterson’s death, said: “For some people, even the most successful and most beloved of athletes and celebrities–there comes a time when nothing can make you forget the difficult things you’ve experienced in life” (Hirshfield, 2011). While it is difficult to say if suicides by athletes have increased or if it is the reporting of suicides by athletes that has increased, several well-known athletes have been in the headlines for their deaths by suicide: Junior Seau, NFL Linebacker for the Chargers, died by suicide in 1995; Stanford soccer player Katie Meyer, Wisconsin distance runner Sarah Sulze, and James Madison softball player Lauren Bernett all died by suicide in 2022. The suspected causes leading to these suicides remain unknown, although the speculation is that all were triggered by mental illness: Largely, though, the evidence points to the “usual suspects” of risk factors for suicidality among women student-athletes, such as depression and other mental health concerns, low self-esteem, poor social support, relationship challenges, history of trauma or abuse, or family history of suicide (Tran, 2023).
Two Danish scholars of sports science (Küttel & Larson, 2020) note that the rates of mental illness among elite women athletes are higher than those of elite men athletes and higher than the general population. While determining the actual rate of mental illness among elite women athletes is very difficult, scholars note that women athletes are particularly subject to mental health stressors (Küttel & Larson, 2020; Rice et al., 2016). Some research has established that women athletes are more susceptible than men to various psychological stressors. Those stressors can contribute to health issues and mental health disorders, ultimately impacting their career satisfaction and longevity (Bernstein, 2002; Koivula, 1999; Pedersen, 2002). Pascoe et al. (2022) examine gender-specific stressors that affect the mental health and the overall well-being of women athletes. One significant stressor identified is exposure to different forms of violence, including psychological, physical, or sexual abuse. Such experiences can result in a range of acute and long-lasting symptoms, further highlighting the vulnerability faced by women athletes. A prominent example occurred during the 2015 Australian Open, where a male on-court announcer prompted tennis player Eugenie Bouchard to twirl to show off her hot-pink outfit on the court, redirecting focus away from her performance and needlessly sexualizing her physique and femininity in a manner unrelated to the sport (Associated Press [AP], 2015).
Woman athletes often face systemic biases in sports, leading to fewer opportunities and reduced financial support compared with their male counterparts. This disparity results in fewer professional options for women athletes, even if they possess sufficient talent. The emphasis of media and society on male sports intensifies this disparity, overshadowing the accomplishments and concerns of woman athletes. Moreover, woman athletes may feel self-conscious about their bodies, and some coaches enforce strict diets and exercise regimens for women athletes more so than men athletes (Pascoe et al., 2022). Women athletes feel pressure to look good while competing, and they are often labeled and criticized for how they look compared with non-athletic women, which can lead to excessive dieting and not getting enough calories and in turn leading to underperformance and depression (Pascoe et al., 2022; van Niekerk et al., 2023).
Strout (2022) underscores a concerning mental health crisis among women college athletes, evidenced by five suicides in one spring. McManama et al. (2021) identify unique challenges faced by these athletes, such as inequity, body image concerns, and eating disorders, often exacerbated by societal pressures and a male-centric sports culture. These pressures, coupled with the drive for perfectionism, lead to heightened mental distress among women athletes.
Multiple studies across mass communication and exercise science have reported the negative association between social media use and negative body image outcomes among athlete and non-athlete populations (Bjornsen & O’Connor, 2023; Hardie et al., 2022; Varnes et al., 2013). Herrero and colleagues (2021) also agree that disordered eating and the adverse impacts of social media affect women differently and at higher rates than men. They emphasize that coaches and trainers must understand how woman athletes perceive injury and recovery to facilitate the successful return of injured athletes to sports. Consequently, McManama O’Brien et al. (2021) recommend that developing resilience is particularly crucial for young woman athletes. Moreover, alarming incidents of sexual abuse among college athletes have been reported, and the NCAA faces criticism for the inadequacy of its mental health support guidelines. While progress is underway, the necessity of comprehensive supports and a shift in sports culture to ensure the well-being of young woman athletes is both clear and urgent (Strout, 2022).
Given the gender disparities highlighted earlier, this study specifically focuses on the mental health challenges of Serena Williams, Naomi Osaka, Simone Biles, Chloe Kim, and Gracie Gold. Through an examination of how the media present the stories of these five elite women athletes, coupled with how public disclosures evolve, we offer a clearer understanding of the distinct challenges faced by women athletes. Unfortunately, sports topics are considered “outside” of scholarly work in journalism and communication. But online media and social media are important avenues for discussions of mental health and the ways these stories are told merits analysis. We selected these five athletes because we wanted to study cases of elite women who recently disclosed mental health struggles and actively engaged in advocacy for mental health awareness. Many college and professional women athletes have also disclosed significant mental health struggles over the years, but these five have consistently advocated for mental health issues since 2020, signifying a modern shift in the conversation. Simone Biles spoke out in 2020, Naomi Osaka in 2021, and Chloe Kim in 2022 about their mental health issues. While Gracie Gold and Serena Williams started their advocacy earlier, their continued efforts align with this recent trend. Gracie Gold first acknowledged her mental health and eating disorder problems in 2017 and endorsed the 2020 HBO documentary The Weight of Gold on athletes’ mental health advocacy. Although it wasn’t her first time discussing her mental health, Serena Williams shared her experiences with depression in 2022, particularly during her retirement.
Erin Whiteside (2019), a sports journalism scholar, has shown how Williams pushed boundaries and helped to change the landscape for the media and women’s tennis. According to Whiteside, the tennis star not only advocated for gender equality in pay but also challenged the conventions of sports journalism. Historically, sports journalism has been perceived as a “toy box” within the broader newsroom, often avoiding critical perspectives on sports’ societal roles. Her presence as a Black woman in a predominantly White and patriarchal sport, coupled with her commitment to activism and openness about personal challenges, compelled journalists to look beyond just the game and address broader societal issues.
It is worth noting that Serena Williams is significantly other than the other four—she is 14 years older than Gracie Gold, the next oldest athlete, and 19 years older than Chloe Kim, the youngest. This age discrepancy provides an interesting angle for analyzing how young athletes cope with their challenges and navigate their interactions with the media. It also raises questions about how they utilize their elite status and their personal social media platforms to discuss their mental health struggles. While Serena Williams is not part of the same generation as the other four athletes, she has effectively leveraged her social media presence, particularly on Instagram, to engage with online audiences.
Our identification of frames used in online media helps clarify how public perceptions of mental illness, including as experienced by women who are professional athletes, might be shaped. Given the overarching objective, we ask the following research questions:
The conclusion section synthesizes potential factors influencing the disclosure of mental health issues among women athletes, the redefinition of the “GOAT” (Greatest of All Time), and the importance of helping audiences understand mental health.
Literature Review
Traditional Media Coverage of Mental Health
An examination of mental health news stories between 1995 and 2014 found that the theme of violence was prevalent (McGinty et al., 2016). Wahl argues that coverage of mental health in 1990, and the negative comments associated with it, perpetuated both stigmatization of mental illness and fear of anyone who might have self-disclosed having a mental health issue. For Wahl, the evidence that news coverage of mental health primarily highlighted stigma and stereotypes was a problem, especially given that, in the late twentieth century, among the different kinds of news media, newspapers were considered the most reliable and most turned-to source of information (Wahl, 2003).
Similarly, McGinty et al. (2014) noted what they called a “disturbing” trend in the way news stories about gun violence and mass shootings framed mental illness as an important contributor to those events. Their study of news coverage of mass shootings from 1997 to 2013 concluded that “dangerous people” were more likely to be blamed for gun violence than dangerous weapons. Likewise, Parrott and Parrott (2015) and McGinty et al. (2013) found that news stories reporting on violent crimes or mass shootings also mentioned mental health as a possible cause.
Slopen et al. (2007) discovered that U.S. newspapers often used stereotypes when reporting on mental illness. However, recent research indicates a shift in this pattern. Research focusing on mental health storytelling in broadcast media has generally yielded consistent findings as to the news coverage. Wang and Gantz’s (2010) analysis of more than 1,300 hours of local television news broadcasts, representing more than 40,000 stories, found that stories about physical illness/diseases and healthy living were the most frequent whereas concerns about mental health and aging were covered the least. But the larger point is that the landscape of news coverage concerning mental health issues has significantly evolved over the past three decades, reflecting broader societal changes.
Myrick et al.’s (2014) study of national television broadcast coverage between 1990 and 2008 of anxiety and depression found that the valence or tone of the stories largely depended on the sources used. For example, given the national prominence of the news reporting about Andrea Yates, a mother of five who was struggling with depression and who drowned her five children, many of the sources were family members or friends. This led to more negatively valenced stories. Medical professionals might have instead (and this would have been better), been able to shed light on the severity of depression, without making light of the deaths. Given the relative infrequency of broadcast news coverage about mental health as a health story rather than associating it with another story about violence, mental illness remains relatively unknown or misunderstood by the public. The way in which television narratives frame mental health stories can perpetuate enduring stigma and reinforce stereotypes and falsehoods surrounding different mental illnesses.
Chen and Lawrie (2017), having analyzed 200 articles related to mental health, noted that news coverage empowers those who disclose their mental health concerns. Whitley and Wang (2017) concluded from their analysis of Canadian newspapers between 2005 and 2015 that individuals were, over time, increasingly willing to openly discuss their mental health issues. People seem to be growing more comfortable with treating mental health (or lack thereof)” as a normal concern, akin to a physical injury, rather than labeling individuals as “problematic” or “crazy.” This change may be attributed to the growing recognition of the prevalence of mental health issues: Data suggest that one in four American adults grapples with such challenges (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2021).
In sum, scholars who have studied traditional print and broadcast news media of mental health agree that journalists need to engage in more informed discussions about mental health. This involves not only providing explanations about mental health and challenges to it but also avoiding sensational reporting that fuels prejudice. Although progress has been made, there remains a significant path forward to ensure responsible and compassionate reporting in this domain.
Social Media and Mental Health
Numerous studies have found that social media use can have a negative effect on mental health (Barry et al., 2017; Zsila & Reyes, 2023). Excessive social media use has been linked to poor mental health and diminished well-being among adolescents; this has been linked to problems such as anxiety, depression, negative self-image, and loneliness (Skogen et al., 2021). Research suggests that social media use can be associated with mental health issues, particularly when users engage in social comparison. Warrender and Milne (2020) concluded that viewing social media can induce social comparison processes that can in turn lead to low self-worth, low self-confidence, sadness, or jealousy. They pointed out that social media use can also have negative outcomes on cognition and behavior. Kumar et al. (2015) verified that constant exposure to curated and often idealized versions of others’ lives on platforms like Instagram can contribute to feelings of inadequacy and negatively impact self-esteem.
Despite the concerns about how social media usage increases social comparisons with others, these platforms have also evolved into spaces for mental health advocacy and awareness campaigns. For example, YouTube and Twitter have created forums where people can openly discuss and learn about mental illness. This availability of information empowers individuals to educate themselves and take an active role in their mental health management. As a result, organizations and individuals dedicated to promoting mental health have utilized social media to reach a wide audience, share resources, and challenge the stigma surrounding mental illness. Hashtags and online movements have emerged that foster discussions and encourage individuals to share their stories, ultimately fostering a more inclusive and supportive environment for those experiencing mental health challenges (Calhoun & Gold, 2020). The sharing of personal experiences on social media platforms has allowed individuals to connect with others facing similar mental health struggles, providing a sense of community and reducing feelings of isolation (Bucci et al., 2019).
Moreover, perspectives have also started to shift because celebrities and non-celebrities alike have shared personal stories about mental illness (Naslund et al., 2020). For instance, after the death of the American actress Carrie Fisher, individuals shared via Twitter their personal experiences with mental health to pay tribute to Fisher, who was an activist for mental health. Fisher often discussed her own bipolar disorder and addictions to cocaine and prescription medication, which she called a form of self-medication. The hashtag #InHonorOfCarrie quickly spread: Numerous tweets highlighted Fisher’s candor, her dedication to eradicating stigma, and her lasting impact. Fisher inspired people to open up and discuss mental health matters (Park & Hoffner, 2020).
News coverage of Mental Health and Athletes
While few studies provide empirical evidence documenting media coverage of athletes and mental illness, exceptions exist. Parrott and colleagues (2021) identified a prevalent portrayal in traditional media of athletes as “invincible.” This might be attributed to societal ideals regarding masculinity, potentially rendering any counter-narrative more challenging for audiences to engage with. Thompson et al. (2022) found that media coverage of Simone Biles during the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games was overwhelmingly positive and further noted that “hero” narratives were found in much of that coverage. According to Parrott et al. (2021), media frames regarding NBA star Kevin Love’s struggles with mental health were typically positive. (In 2018, after another professional basketball star, DeMar DeRozan publicly discussed his struggles with depression, Love revealed in a March 2018 essay for The Players’ Tribune that he had been seeing a therapist, having had a panic attack during a game the previous year. Love continued to push for mental health awareness, including by discussing his struggles with anxiety and rage.) Many applauded Love for his strength and willingness to publicly discuss his struggles with mental health.
Cassilo and Kluch (2021) examined media framing of Ohio State basketball player D.J. Carton’s announcement to step away from athletics temporarily because of his mental health issues in January 2020. They found media coverage of his announcement to be overall positive, again with an emphasis on social support received from his teammates, his new role as an advocate for mental health, and his help in destigmatizing mental health in general. However, alongside this supportive narrative, the media also presented a “demanding frame” regarding Carton in his expected role as an athlete and teammate: apparently a higher standard was expected of him because of his role first as an athlete and second as a human being.
While public revelations about mental health struggles or suicides by athletes and celebrities are not rare, they can be shocking, particularly if these individuals had not previously discussed their mental health issues. The tragic suicides of Anthony Bourdain, the renowned American celebrity chef, and Kate Spade, the esteemed American fashion designer, took many by surprise, as the broader public was largely unaware of the mental health battles they were confronting.
When it comes to the sources used in stories about mental health, some scholars have found that increasingly, journalists are quoting the athletes more than frequently as athletes are using social media to share their own stories (Parrott et al., 2021). Michael Phelps began disclosing his own mental health issues in 2014, after spending time in a rehabilitation facility (Layden, 2015). An analysis of articles about Phelps’ mental health found that after his retirement in 2016, “seeking help” was mentioned more frequently and Phelps was also given voice more often (Jackson et al., 2022). This means that in the limited previous coverage of Phelps, the stories focused less on his disclosure that he had attempted to seek help. Moreover, a growing number of researchers have examined the coverage of mental health disclosures by athletes. Parrot et al. (2021) found that 23% of the news articles they analyzed about NBA players Kevin Love’s and Demar DeRozan’s mental health disclosures gave a voice to the athlete; indeed, the athlete was quoted more than anyone else in those stories. They also found that coverage frequently mentioned support from other athletes, teammates, and coaches; 31 percent of the stories included a call to action related to mental health, where individuals or organizations encouraged support for efforts aimed at improving mental health care, treatment, support, funding, or reducing stigma (Parrot et al., 2021).
Scholars seem primarily to be interested in news coverage of athletes’ achievements rather than their challenges. Furthermore, limited research delves into how the media portrays woman athletes when they acknowledge encountering mental health problems. For example, Thompson et al.’s analysis (2022) found that the coverage of Simone Biles during the 2020 Olympics was overwhelmingly positive, that is, journalists initially did not criticize her decision to withdraw from competition. However, comprehensive coverage regarding athletes’ mental health in the broader context is lacking. This comprehensive coverage includes providing greater context related to the stressors that athletes experience, which could contribute to challenges with mental health. Considering the additional stressors that women athletes may face compared with their men counterparts, this manuscript aims to bridge the existing gap in the literature as no other academic study has looked at athletes’ social media use for personal storytelling in conjunction with news and popular press coverage of them concurrently.
In sum, scholarly literature about athletes addressing mental health makes clear that news outlets frequently depict them as resilient in confronting challenges, thereby upholding the stereotypical strong image associated with athletes. However, we believe some nuances may be overlooked. It’s essential to recognize that athletes, like any other individuals, can experience a range of emotions and vulnerabilities. Delving deeper into athletes’ experiences as told by athletes themselves on their social media platforms can provide a more comprehensive understanding of their mental well-being.
Metajournalism
In the same way that audiences may find it difficult to grasp the nuances of mental health messaging, journalists have also encountered difficulties in determining the appropriate and effective manner to cover this sensitive subject. As suggested earlier, news coverage from even a decade ago might have contextualized mental health in a way that perpetuated stereotypes and, in some cases, even linked increasing gun violence across the United States to mental health.
Concurrently, news editors and journalists are seeking to enhance their connections with the audience. Consequently, the concept of “metajournalism” has garnered scholarly attention. Carlson (2016) defines metajournalism as public expressions by journalists “evaluating news texts, the practices that produce them, or the conditions of their reception” (p. 353). Put simply, metajournalism is a journalistic practice that focuses on the processes, ethics, and challenges of journalism itself rather than the content of news stories. Carlson himself uses metajournalism as a mechanism to understand how journalists make sense of their own work—how news is gathered, reported, and disseminated, addressing issues like media bias, ethical dilemmas, and the evolving digital news landscape (Carlson, 2016). In this study, we define metajournalism as a means of journalists’ self-reflection on the practice of journalism and improving the quality and integrity of news reporting. It could be argued that news coverage of mental health represents what is called a critical incident—an event or development that forces journalists to reconsider the “hows and whys” of journalism (Jenkins et al., 2020).
A critical incident often precipitates or initiates discourse about what it means to be a journalist. Thomas et al. (2020) defined a critical incident as an event that has led to significant changes in journalism, such as changes in newsroom practices, ethical standards, or public perceptions of journalism. Carlson (2016) uses critical incidents to understand the boundaries of journalism and how they shape the practice of journalism. Zelizer (1992) explains that because a critical incident makes it difficult for journalists to function according to their usual routines, the level of criticalness can be operationalized by how much journalists and their work are affected by that event. For example. Finneman and Thomas (2022) examined the role of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalistic practice and found that in some cases, journalistic organizations helped remind other journalistic organizations of the value they were playing in telling the stories of the pandemic but in doing so, they were also reminding readers about the importance of keeping journalism alive (Carlson, 2016; Finneman and Thomas, 2022; Zelizer, 1992). Critical incidents in journalism serve as pivotal approaches that disrupt routine practices, highlighting the vital role of journalism in shaping public awareness and understanding.
Regarding reporting on health topics, especially mental health, some scholars say that journalists should serve as conduits of information between health care or health practitioners and the public, in effect accurately reporting on medical and public health information to publics who otherwise won’t know this important news (Holland, 2017). When reporting on health topics, journalists may have to be more careful via the language choice used or in the way a story discusses mental health to reduce the likelihood of increased bias or stereotypical attitudes against mental health.
As it relates to mental health, it is noteworthy that bad journalistic practices are likely, especially in cases when an individual has engaged in criminal behavior or died by suicide. Analysis of media coverage of athletes and mental health often stigmatizes mental illness (Parrott et al., 2021). However, the gradual evolution in the nature and quality of this mental health coverage offers a glimmer of hope. Some of these include support for the athlete, blaming the athlete, advocacy, critiques of leagues, understanding and de-stigmatization (Cassilo, 2022; Cassilo & Kluch, 2021).
Theoretical Framework
Media Framing, Gender Difference, and Mental Health
The concept of framing, initially proposed by the prominent sociologist Erving Goffman (1974), has found significant applications in media research (Cassilo, 2022); framing has been used in thousands of published studies of media coverage of specific people or specific issues. Framing in news stories, as Entman (1993) described, involves the deliberate selection and emphasis of specific aspects of perceived reality to shape the definition of an issue, analyze its causes, make moral assessments, and propose treatment suggestions. By highlighting certain elements in a text while downplaying or omitting others, often to please or attract their audience (Billings & Eastman, 2003), media practitioners can influence the public’s understanding of an event (Chong & Druckman, 2007).
One crucial aspect of contemporary media framing is the repetition of frames across various media outlets. When a particular frame is consistently repeated and reinforced, eventually audience members are likely to perceive it as an accepted fact (Billings & Eastman, 2003). This phenomenon highlights the significant impact of media framing on public opinion and in constructing a shared understanding of events and issues, especially in the case of sensitive subjects like mental health, which, because so many people know so little about it, can easily fall victim to stereotypes and stigma. Indeed, some media framing studies have examined the intersection of sports coverage and health (Cassilo, 2022; Lundqvist & Andersson, 2021; Parrott et al., 2021).
The media have played an important role in shaping public perceptions and knowledge about athletes. Historically, media coverage of athletes and athletics has largely skewed toward an over-representation of male sports vs female sports (Billings & Angelini, 2007, 2019; Billings et al., 2010). Hegemonic masculinity, a concept that defines a societal pattern idealizing stereotypically male traits as the cultural masculine ideal, plays a significant role in perpetuating men’s dominance over women (Donaldson, 1993). In the context of sport, hegemonic masculinity has been studied as a performative aspect of sport and how males are expected to “physically dominate their opponents” (Lavelle, 2021) and in the way commentators have described male and female athletes in the same sport (Smith & Bissell, 2014).
Multiple studies highlight the disparity in sports media coverage between men and women athletes (Bernstein, 2002; (Pascoe et al., 2022; Shifflett & Revelle, 1994). For the purposes of better understanding how this relates to framing, the quantity of coverage will dictate the opportunities for different narratives to emerge as it relates to a male or female athlete. If coverage of women athletes is disproportionately lower than that of men athletes, the messaging from the media truly can shape public perceptions in significant ways. As it relates to the quantity of coverage, Koivula’s (1999) study of Swedish televised sports revealed inadequate coverage for women athletes: less than 10% of the total sports news time highlighted the stories of women athletes and their achievements. Moreover, a mere 2% of the coverage focused specifically on women participating in sports traditionally perceived as masculine. Although this is a dated study, it provided the foundation for the work done in the last two decades, which has often found that in global sporting events, like the Olympics, women and their respective sports often get more airtime than their male counterparts (see Billings, 2008; Billings & Angelini, 2007, 2019; Billings & Eastman, 2002; Billings et al., 2014). However, some argue that global sporting events like the Olympics or the World Cup are single events; as such, their representation of men and women does not reflect airtime devoted to regular sports throughout the year (Pfister, 2018; Ravel & Gareau, 2016). The importance of noting the quantity of airtime/print time female athletes have received historically is relevant to understanding how media frames of female athletes may also be different from frames used in coverage of male athletes.
The limited representation of women athletes in sports media coverage perpetuates gender inequalities across the sports domain. This lack of visibility not only hinders women athletes from gaining the recognition they deserve but also undermines the aspirations and opportunities of young girls who might otherwise be inspired by women role models in sports. Efforts to address this disparity and promote gender equality in sports media coverage are essential to challenge prevailing norms and encourage equal opportunities for women in sports. While events such as the most recent women’s World Cup in Australia, which provided U.S. audiences with primetime coverage of games, are becoming more common than in the past, it does not erase preconceived notions about the role of women in sports.
Pascoe et al. (2022) highlight how women athletes involved in sports perceived as “feminine-oriented,” like gymnastics, figure skating, and tennis, typically garner more media attention than those engaged in traditionally “masculine” team sports, such as ice hockey, basketball, or rugby. Moreover, they also pointed out that media coverage often shifts focus from the women athletes’ accomplishments to unrelated attributes or aspects of the sport. This diversion can take several forms, including directing discussions toward athletes’ personal lives, thereby diminishing the spotlight on their actual sports skills and accomplishments. For example, the most common themes mentioned in broadcast coverage of women’s beach volleyball players were family life, their attire, and other qualities unrelated to their athletic abilities or performance (Smith & Bissell, 2014).
Framing studies often indicate that the mediated frames contribute to audience members’ beliefs and attitudes about specific topics and issues. By delving into the mechanisms and consequences of framing, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the media’s influence on public discourse and societal views (Lecheler & De Vreese, 2019). Thus, we use framing theory both to help understand the narratives about professional women athletes and their public disclosures about mental health and to make an argument about the impact of the storytelling devices used and the narratives selected for inclusion.
Social Identity and Social Support
This research aims to delve into the core questions of how women athletes view their roles, how they are seen by others, and the level of support they garner when or after they disclose mental health issues. First, in understanding their self-perception as athletes, we draw upon social identity theory. Subsequently, to understand external perceptions, we investigate the ties between women athletes and the diverse social groups they are connected to.
Much of what scholars are trying to understand about the relationship between mental health and media is the way individuals utilize various media to tell their respective stories. Media use and athletes’ willingness to share, on some level, come down to how people see themselves through the public lens, and how their own identity has been constructed via mediated representations. The underlying premise of social identity theory is that individuals derive part of their identity—their social identity—from the groups they belong—woman, athlete, mother, student, professional, and so on. Tajfel (1978) described social identity as “the part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from knowledge of membership in a social group together with the value or emotional significance attached to that membership” (p. 63). Tajfel and Turner (1979) note that social identity emerges via a process of self-categorization and social comparison: Social identity is formed through positive intergroup social comparisons.
Vella et al. (2021) found that when adolescent male athletes enjoyed a high degree of social identification with their team (even while they identified individually as athletes), their degree of mental health and wellness tended to be high. That is, when athletes participate in team sports and can socially identify with similar others, successes and failures can be shared collectively. However, the social identification of athletes who compete individually may be solely based on their singular identity as an athlete; this could then threaten their mental health when they experience the highs and lows of competition. To this point, Apolo Ohno, a retired American short-track speed skater who has won multiple Olympic medals, said, “People don’t celebrate you unless you bring home gold” (Parrish, 2020). This statement suggests that athletes are often seen through a narrow lens and the athletes realize this. The value of an athlete who doesn’t win first place or the gold medal declines. Therefore, the more an athlete sees himself/herself through a single lens—that as an athlete—and cannot see beyond the sport, the more likely the athlete is to have mental health issues (Bruner et al., 2014).
Research on media coverage of athletes who publicly disclose mental health struggles often finds mention of positive social support from their teammates and teams (Cassilo & Kluch, 2021). For athletes who decide to go public about their mental health struggles, their perceived networks of social support may become an important part of the decision (Schinke et al., 2018). Bruner et al. (2014) reported that athletes may experience social influences from a broader social environment, especially when they feel they are receiving support via comments or direct messaging following athletes’ posts on social media. Consequently, the extent to which athletes align themselves with a particular social group can impact their self-confidence and sense of identity (Abrams & Hogg, 2001). For instance, elite women athletes may encounter a greater degree of “unconditional” social support from friends and family compared with those whom they do not have personal relationships with, leading to a more accepting attitude toward failures should they occur. Conversely, coaches, fans, teammates, and even the media may maintain higher expectations of success, assuming roles akin to that of supervisors with a more demanding approach toward athletes.
As noted in the literature review, the media have long influenced athletes’ mental health narratives. Yet the impact on women athletes remains under-explored. The rise of social media gives athletes enhanced control over how and when they discuss their mental health. Our study employs social identity theory to analyze the public disclosures of elite women athletes about their mental health issues, specifically, how they choose to present themselves and the social support they subsequently received. This perspective can illuminate the distinct challenges faced by women athletes and how they are framed in the media.
Method
A thematic analysis was conducted to assess the way that online media (both mainstream and independent digital media) and social media covered athletes’ stories about mental health. That is, we were interested in two sources of materials: from news and popular press organizations online and social media posts from the athletes. The terms “digital” and “online” media coverage were used interchangeably to encompass all news content accessible online. This includes content from online newspapers, news websites, social media, and mobile applications (Johnson, 2015). Specifically, we contrast narratives from athletes’ social media posts with narratives from other digital news sources.
We looked at news articles, social media posts from sports organizations not considered news as well as from the athletes themselves to determine the arc of each athlete’s respective story about reaching the height of her professional career despite the roadblocks and hurdles encountered along the way. Multiple databases were used to search for online content from news organizations, sports-specific publications, and popular press publications. An initial time frame was developed to determine the critical point when each athlete made the first or most public statement about her challenges with mental health. Using that date as a starting point, articles and stories were then collected from a wide range of sources. EBSCOhost’s Newspaper Source was used to identify news stories about each athlete, and then Google was used to identify online sources that fell outside of the Newspaper Source’s parameters. Each athlete’s name was used as a keyword to identify stories and articles and then a secondary filter, mental health, was applied to the same search. Articles were scanned to determine if applicable to the present study, and if the article either mentioned each athlete’s initial disclosure or any of the ramifications afterwards, the story was included in the sample. The search for material about each athlete was to provide a brief overview of each athlete’s rise to fame, identify when changes in performance occurred, and then identify how or if mental health became a part of that narrative. In addition, we looked for content that reflected the public’s perspective regarding each athlete after making public statements about mental health. This public perspective could come in the form of quotes that were used in news or entertainment articles or come in the form of comments to the athletes’ social media posts.
A final set of 65 media items was selected for in-depth analysis, encompassing news from both mainstream and independent digital media. Media items can be categorized based on their format, which includes articles, editorials, interviews, and social media posts. In addition, they can be classified by their sources. Mainstream media sources included outlets such as CNN, The New York Times, ESPN, The Washington Post, and Time. On the other hand, “independent media” includes articles from websites like USA TODAY, The Tennessee Tribune, Forbes, Vogue, and INSIDER.
We found and analyzed the following number of articles related to the athlete’s mental health concerns: 15 for Serena Williams, 14 each for Simone Biles and Naomi Osaka, 11 for Gracie Gold, and 11 for Chloe Kim. In addition, we collected direct messages from the social media posts of these elite female athletes themselves. Social media posts from each athlete were examined during the timeframe when the athletes started making statements about mental health. Then, we searched more broadly to see what online media might have also said about that athlete. Instagram and Twitter were the primary social media platforms included in the analysis. In sum, social media posts and comments were considered in the analysis of women athlete’s discussions about mental health, and online news and entertainment content was considered in the analysis of the media’s coverage of the athletes and their mental health.
After articles and content were gathered from social media, each item underwent a comprehensive review and analysis. This evaluation involved assessing the depth of mental health discussions and the context in which they were framed, particularly in terms of overall sentiment. Entman’s discussion of framing involves valence such as positive or negative and includes the selection or emphasis of concepts in text (Entman, 1993). We drew upon the themes identified by Thompson et al.’s (2022) study of Simone Biles, which also followed Entman’s tenants of framing but rely on Thompson’s work because the frames identified were appropriate for the context of the present study and in a sport context. These themes included mental health disclosure, symptoms, implications for individuals and teams, heroism, courage, bravery, and self-care. These themes served as a framework for analyzing the online media content.
Before delving into the specific research questions, we provide a concise introduction to the athletes and summarize each athlete’s public statements about her mental health. In the research findings section, we first review the mental health statements made by each athlete and then the findings of the separate analyses of the themes of the media coverage and the self-expression of athletes on social media platforms. We examine what the athletes and the media said regarding the causes associated with declines in mental health. Given our interest in social identity theory, we examine the responses from online media coverage of elite women athletes and their social media posts of the crowd, fans, and other athletes to each athlete’s public acknowledgment of mental health struggles. We investigate whether they received social support or faced negative criticism and which groups offered social support and which ones criticize them.
Athletes’ Backgrounds and Public Statements on Mental Health
Serena Williams
Serena Williams is an American tennis player whose powerful playing style revolutionized women’s tennis. In 2015, she made history as the oldest woman to secure a Grand Slam title—at 33, an age when most professional athletes usually experience a decline in performance or consider retiring from the intensely competitive realm of women’s singles tennis (Doerer, 2017). Williams won her record-breaking 23rd Grand Slam singles championship on January 28, 2017, at the Australian Open while she was 8 weeks pregnant (Wion, 2022). Williams had won more Grand Slam singles (23) than any other woman or man (Britannica, 2022a) until the U.S. Open in September 2023, when Novak Djokovic broke her record by winning his 24th Grand Slam title.
Williams is widely considered to be the “GOAT” in tennis (D’Cunha, 2022), given her extraordinary accomplishments but also her remarkable resilience in overcoming injuries and maintaining a high standard of performance during and after her pregnancy, and general tenacity. In explaining why Williams deserved to be regarded as the GOAT, D’Cunha mentioned her rise from adversity and response to despair: The successes are painted in glory for all to see, but it’s the setbacks and solitude that moulded Serena Williams into the GOAT. She won more than most other players but her career had an unusual share of failures and controversies. (D’Cunha, September 3, 2022)
To the point here, Williams encountered and overcame significant challenges in the form of breaks in competitive play and depression. The first hiatus occurred in 2006 after she revealed she had been playing with an injury and dealing with mental stress following a loss at the Australian Open. Her physical injuries dated back to 2003, with surgeries and recurring issues. In 2006, extensive surgery was needed to repair a torn tendon in her quadriceps. Williams, known for her extroverted personality and competitive drive, temporarily stepped away from tennis to prioritize her physical and mental well-being. In addition, after giving birth to her daughter Olympia in 2017, Williams experienced severe complications, leading to postpartum depression.
Prior to the U.S. Open in 2006, Williams found herself trying to return to her #1 ranking but was facing physical challenges in the form of having to rehabilitate her knee and acknowledged she was dealing with what she described as a mental lapse. “I’m literally running on one leg,” Williams stated. “It’s not worth it. I have to get better, physically. And then when I took the break, mentally—it all came crashing down” (Robbins, 2006a, 2006b). During Williams’ interview with New York Times reporter Liz Robbins, she opened up about her the murder of her half-sister, Yetunde Price, describing how it affected her daily. Williams said that 6 weeks prior to Price’s death, she had undergone surgery to repair a partially torn tendon, and the rehabilitation process was going more slowly than she had hoped or expected. The challenges she faced, she said, caused her to withdraw from the tour for several months, resulting in her falling out of the top 100 in the rankings. However, Williams, known for her grit, announced her determination to return to the top of the game in 2007. She silenced the skeptics by winning the 2007 Australian Open.
One of her most dramatic absences began in July 2010, after she stepped on glass and injured a tendon in her right foot. She reinjured her foot in October of that year, requiring a second operation. Subsequently, she had a life-threatening pulmonary embolism in February 2011. A few weeks later, she developed a hematoma in her stomach. After more than 20 years on the court, right after suffering a defeat at the 2022 U.S. Open, Williams announced she was retiring and would focus on her family. She said that accepting retirement was not easy. “I’ve been reluctant to admit that I have to move on from playing tennis,” she says. “It’s like a taboo topic. It comes up, and I start to cry. I think the only person I’ve really gone there with is my therapist!” (The Tennessee Tribune, 2022).
Despite initial concerns expressed in her retirement statement, Serena Williams appears to have transitioned well into her post-retirement life. This is evident when she publicly announced her second pregnancy in May 2023 (Kindelan, 2023); her second daughter was born in August 2023. Williams expressed her happiness and relief, telling reporters at the Met Gala: “I feel like I’m so happy. I don’t have to train for two hours today.” (Kindelan, 2023). Williams’ two decades-long career reflected the highs and lows of a professional athlete. Based on her own assessment of her career, she learned to manage the challenges she faced off the court, including those related to mental health. However, it is important to acknowledge that her openness with telling her story evolved over time. From the early conversation with the NYT reporter Liz Robbins to her announcement about her retirement, her statements about taking care of herself have increasingly become more prominent. While it is not fair to speculate or make assumptions about her mental health status earlier in her professional career, it seems that as Williams grew professionally, her ability to be more open about her challenges evolved in a way that revealed more about all she was dealing with.
Gracie Gold
Grace Elizabeth Gold, widely known as Gracie Gold, is an American figure skater who made her debut in the international arena during the World Championships and Olympic Games. Gold made her breakthrough on the international stage in 2013 when she claimed her first senior national title at the U.S. Figure Skating Championships. This victory propelled her onto the global stage, where she would achieve even greater success. She was the 2013 and 2015 U.S. silver medalist, the 2014 and 2016 U.S. national champion, and a bronze medalist at the 2014 Winter Olympics team events (Fanzone, 2023). Her name became synonymous with elegance and excellence in the world of figure skating (Payne, 2017).
Following the 2016 World Championships, Gold encountered a series of setbacks, including what she and her coaches attributed to a perpetual state of exhaustion (Hunt, 2020). At 21 years old, she achieved what was considered an impressive feat by securing the lead in the short program, captivating the home audience at TD Garden in Boston. However, in the free skate, she missed a jump and wound up in fourth place. For Gold and many figure skating fans, the expectation was that she would win. This outcome was deemed unacceptable (McCarve, 2022). The result frustrated Gold and sent her spiraling downward. After what she notes was a challenging 2016-2017 season, Gold openly acknowledged her struggles with anxiety publicly in press conferences and on her social media account, along with her battle against an eating disorder and body dysmorphia. An article in the Washington Post noted that Gold recognized the importance of her well-being and decided to pursue professional treatment and prioritize both her physical and mental health (Payne, 2017).
Gold did not explain this set of circumstances in terms of a single factor; rather she attributed the problem to a complex confluence of smaller elements that quickly accumulated. In an interview with The Guardian, she explained that from the age of 16, she had been hiding her struggle with depression, which began shortly after her win at the 2012 junior national championships. Gold returned from a brief hiatus between competitions, experiencing a slight increase in weight. Gold’s coach expressed concern that her new weight (124 pounds) was heavier than she needed to be. Gold has said that this remark served as a catalyst for dieting, igniting her compulsion to meticulously control her weight for the next 5 years (Hunt, 2020). Gold resorted to starving herself, frequently going to bed with an empty stomach following long training sessions.
Gold says her obsessive-compulsive eating and exercise behavior caused her to experience lower self-esteem and self-hate. According to Gold, much of this behavior was prompted by a single statement from her coach about her weight. By all accounts, she was engaging in eating behaviors similar to bulimia, and this added to her mental and physical decline. This disordered eating behavior initially resulted in Gold performing well, as evidenced by her achievement at the 2016 national competition. But mentally, Gold found herself in a profoundly deteriorated state (Hunt, 2020). Candidly acknowledging her battle with those closest to her, she disclosed experiencing recurrent thoughts of self-harm, although she noted she had not had suicidal ideation. During this time, she even covered all the mirrors in her home, because she found the mere sight of herself unbearable (Tempesta, 2019). Gold opted to enroll in a program that she hoped would help her control her eating disorder and get her mental health on track such that she could function day-to-day without relapses.
At that point, Gold did not aspire to resume her professional skating career. Instead, she observed the 2018 national competition as a spectator, her weight approximately 40 pounds heavier than when she was competing. Gold had resolved within herself that this was okay: She had accepted her place in life as a spectator and commentator (Hunt, 2020). However, 4 years later, Gold later decided to resume competition during the 2022 season. Although the Gold did not qualify for the 2022 Olympics in Beijing, she performed well in the National Championships. This spoke to her resilience and perseverance, as well as her athletic drive (Hersh, 2022). Gold said she has witnessed personal growth within herself, adding, “I was just going to take it one day at a time and see where this second chance in skating took me” (Hunt, 2020).
Gold’s current mission revolves around establishing a community of athletes dedicated to promoting mental health advocacy through speaking engagements and her forthcoming memoir set to be released in 2024. Initially, Gold was unaware of the underlying causes behind her early experiences with depression, and she hesitated to openly acknowledge her mental health condition for years. However, she changed her mind when she received overwhelmingly positive responses from numerous athletes across diverse sports and at various competitive levels, all sharing their encounters with similar sentiments of solidarity (McCarve, 2021). In line with other athletes, Gold made public declarations about how the support received from fellow athletes played a pivotal role in enabling her to find her voice and openly discuss her struggles. She states that she firmly believes that athletes should act and speak with the same straightforwardness related to conversations about mental health as they do regarding physical therapy services after an injury (KHQ, 2021).
Simone Biles
Simone Biles is regarded as one of the top gymnasts in the world. Born in 1997, Biles achieved outstanding records for the United States on national and international stages. She helped the U.S. women gymnastics team win its third consecutive Olympic team gold medal and won three individual gold medals in the all-around, vault, and floor exercise at the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro (Macur, 2021). She is the first American woman to win four gold medals in a single competition (at the 2016 Olympics), and she has not lost an all-around title since 2013 (Peszek, 2022). Biles has won seven Olympic medals and 30 World Championship medals as of October 2023 (Gunston, 2023).
Biles sent shockwaves throughout the world on July 27, 2021, when she announced the decision to withdraw from the final individual all-around competition at the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games. Just two days prior, Biles had encountered challenges, placing second in the qualifying round for the floor routine. In an Instagram post following the qualifying round, she candidly expressed her emotions, stating, “It wasn’t an easy day or my best, but I got through it…. I truly do feel like I have the weight of the world on my shoulders at times” (Mclaughlin, 2021). Biles acknowledged that although she may often appear unaffected by the immense pressure, it can indeed take a toll on her mental well-being: I know I brush it off and make it seem like pressure doesn’t affect me but, damn, sometimes it’s hard hahaha! The Olympics is no joke! BUT I’m happy my family was able to be with me virtually. They mean the world to me! (Quoted in Mclaughlin, 2021).
Biles emphasized the difficulty of the competition and alluded to the intense pressure she felt to repeat her wins from 2016.
During a period of intense pressure and anxiety, Biles encountered a phenomenon known among gymnasts as “the twisties.” This condition manifests when an athlete loses spatial awareness while executing the intricate flips and spins required in gymnastic routines (Hines, 2021). Biles openly expressed the difficulties she faced: “That was really hard. I trained my whole life, I was physically ready, I was fine. And then this happens” (Quoted in Hertel, 2021). She elaborated on the mental toll, describing the solitary struggle with inner demons once she returned to practice. Recognizing the importance of prioritizing her own well-being and mental health, Biles decided to focus on preserving her sanity and not compromising her overall health. She went on to return to competition, competing in the final team events (Mclaughlin, 2021), where the U.S. women placed second.
Since the Tokyo Olympics, commentators at gymnastics events like the most recent U.S. Championships refer more frequently to the “twisties” that Biles experienced during the Olympic Games. While Biles was criticized by some for not being “tough,” the increased use of that single word has started to normalize the challenges gymnasts face in executing some of the more challenging skills across apparatuses. Based on the analysis for the present study, the specific use of the term, “the twisties” has become more frequently used and discussed in the context of athletes performing difficult skills on an apparatus.
Naomi Osaka
Naomi Osaka is a Japanese tennis player (born in 1997) who won her first Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) title in 2018 by beating Simona Halep, who was world No. 1 at the time. Seven months later, she reached an entirely new level by defeating her all-time idol, Serena Williams, in the U.S. Open final. She was the first Japanese player to win a Grand Slam singles championship. In 2019, she also became the first Asian player to reach the top of the WTA world rankings (Britannica, 2022b). Osaka is known for speaking up on issues of social justice, specifically about fighting anti-Black racism (McDonald, 2020). To show her support for “Black Lives Matter,” she wore a face mask at the U.S. Open in 2020 with the names of African Americans who had died due to police misconduct and racism. In the same year, Osaka was named the Women Athlete of the Year by the Associated Press for her achievements in tennis and social justice advocacy (Britannica, 2022a).
From 2018 until 2021, Osaka experienced claimed a Grand Slam title in each year. However, on May 31, 2021, Osaka withdrew from the French Open, citing her decision not to participate in press conferences and post-match interviews, which she said were detrimental to her mental health. In a piece Osaka wrote for The New York Times, she said, “It’s O.K. to not be O.K” (Osaka, 2021). She announced her withdrawal from the French Open in a statement of thirteen sentences, just under 350 words on her Instagram account. She also opened up about her struggles, revealing, “I have suffered long bouts of depression since the US Open of 2018 and I have had a really hard time coping with that.” She mentioned using headphones during tournaments to manage her social anxiety.
The conflict between Osaka and tournament organizers began on May 26, when she told the tournament organizers she would not attend post-match news conferences during the French Open. She said that engaging with journalists often caused her anxiety, and the negative comments regarding her performance were detrimental to her mental well-being (Maine, 2021). Four days later, following her first-round victory, the conflict escalated when she skipped the news conference. Many professional sports competitions, especially renowned Grand Slam tennis events like the French Open, have rules and regulations that compel athletes to participate in post-match news conferences. As a result of these regulations, the heads of the U.S. Tennis Association, the French Tennis Federation, the All-England Tennis Club, and Tennis Australia issued a joint statement in which they informed Osaka of her the $15,000 fine that would be imposed if she failed to uphold the expectations of meeting with the press (Ramsay, 2023). Their announcement emphasized the compulsory nature of the press conference and asserted that Osaka had failed to fulfill her contractual media obligations (Madani, 2021). The organizers of the Grand Slam warned her that if Osaka declined another press conference in the future, she could face additional penalties or suspension from subsequent tournaments (Ponciano, 2021).
Eventually, she withdrew from the French Open. At the same time, she made her first public disclosure of her struggles with depression by sharing it on her social media platforms, including Instagram and Twitter (now X). She said she had suffered from depression and anxiety since her 2018 victory over Serena Williams at the United States Open and “has had a really hard time coping with that” (quoted in Futterman, 2021). She said her anxiety was made worse by her interactions with the press.
Following her withdrawal from the 2021 French Open, Osaka opted to take a break from tennis, choosing not to participate in Wimbledon later that year. In 2022, she faced a series of injuries that hindered her performance: she was unable to progress beyond the third round in any of the three Grand Slam events she had entered. Indeed, in 2022, Osaka failed to secure any tournament victory; her most notable outcome was losing to Iga Świątek in the final of the Miami Open (Chiari, 2023).
In January 2023, Naomi Osaka suddenly announced her decision to withdraw from the Australian Open without disclosing the reason (Nome, 2023). Shortly afterward, she made a significant announcement on Instagram. Alongside an ultrasound image, she shared a post with a statement implying her impending motherhood: “Can’t wait to get back on the court but here’s a little life update for 2023” (Solé, 2023).
Chloe Kim
Chloe Kim is an accomplished American snowboarder and a two-time Olympic gold medalist. Her journey to fame followed a trajectory befitting a professional snowboarder, marked by sudden and remarkable achievements. Growing up in Southern California, Kim began competing in snowboarding at 4 years old, although her recognition beyond the snowboarding community came during the 2018 Winter Olympics, when she was 17. She became the youngest woman to secure a gold medal in the women’s halfpipe event, accomplishing the extraordinary feat of two consecutive 1080-degree spins. Her performance earned her three 2018 ESPYs and the distinction of being named one of Time magazine’s most influential people. The media coverage surrounding Kim was overwhelmingly positive, and she appeared to be at the pinnacle of her career. However, an injury in 2019 led Kim to take a 22-month-long hiatus from the sport.
Despite her success in her sport, Kim encountered mental health challenges. In various interviews and social media posts following her 2019 injury, she discussed the pressures and emotional difficulties she faced as a high-profile athlete (Roenigk, 2021). During an interview with Time magazine conducted before the 2022 Olympics, Kim vividly recalls receiving a negative comment on Instagram shortly after winning her silver medal in 2014, when Kim was only 13 years old (Gregory, 2022). Apparently, after sharing a photo of herself with her medal, Kim started receiving direct messages from individuals who told her to “return to China” and who commented that she had deprived White American team members of their rightful medals. When recalling the incident, Kim revealed that these messages left her in tears. In addition, she faced online bullying from members of her own national team. While Kim has declined to detail what this bullying entailed, this incident, along with a pervasive sense of burnout and a feeling of being adrift, prompted Kim to take a two-year hiatus from snowboarding (Gregory, 2022, para. 13).
Kim has spoken publicly about feeling overwhelmed by the challenges she faced as a Korean American. Inquiries regarding her identity and upbringing as a Korean American arose after her selection for the 2018 Olympic team, leading to racist jokes being made about her. Kim told reporters she chose to respond with laughter to avoid confrontation and conceal her distress (Roenigk, 2021). Within the snowboarding realm, Kim’s social circle was predominantly composed of Caucasian individuals. Similarly, during her school years, she has said she often experienced a sense of isolation because her interactions were primarily with Caucasian peers. Kim found herself as the sole representative of a minority group on the U.S. halfpipe team (Roenigk, 2021).
During the time she was competing nationally and internationally, Kim has been subjected to derogatory remarks on social media platforms. She laments that she frequently receives racist and sexist messages and describes herself as deeply saddened by the acceptance of such behavior, including being labeled a “dumb Asian bitch” on Instagram (Wells, 2021). Furthermore, Kim acknowledges the emotional impact of these messages: Despite the abundance of supportive messages she receives, the vitriolic ones have the most profound effect on her well-being (Roenigk, 2021).
Kim has stated publicly that she often struggles because she finds herself as a professional athlete hitting plateaus and not progressing; this makes her feel trapped and at times, unable to improve. However, following her candid discussions about her struggles with anxiety and the impact on her performance and general well-being, she has actively sought a way through these challenges by seeking help. She says she recognizes the need to prioritize her own needs and not constantly strive for what she considers public expectations of perfection.
After speaking publicly about her mental health battle, Kim made a comeback to the competitive stage with what was called an “exceptional” performance (Gregory, 2022). Kim returned to competition during the 2021 season, winning the XGames and the World Championships. She secured her second Olympic title at the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing (Merrell, 2022).
This brief history shows that five athletes in the study all spoke publicly about mental health using their own social media platforms to tell their stories. Two of them—Simone Biles and Naomi Osaka—spoke about their mental health while they were in their athletic prime. In the case of Osaka, a reporter from the New York Times said, “It is the first time in professional tennis that a star as significant as Osaka who has not suffered a physical injury has walked away in the middle of an event as big as the French Open” (Futterman, 2021). Gracie Gold acknowledged openly her difficulties with anxiety after a difficult season, as well as her battles with an eating disorder and body dysmorphia but this was after she had reached the height of her professional career. Chloe Kim remained silent following her wins at the Beijing Olympics in 2018 but went public with her mental health concerns shortly before the 2022 Winter Olympic Games.
Results
Above we summarized the chronology of the first public statements made by the five athletes regarding their mental health. This perspective is essential to an analysis of the specific junctures in their professional careers when they chose to openly discuss their mental health struggles, ultimately enhancing our analysis. Below we provide our thematic analysis of the media coverage that each Olympic athlete received as well as social media posts initiated by the athletes. We found several key themes dominating the way that each athlete’s mental health story unfolded publicly: These themes will be discussed in the context of each research question.
Each athlete’s decision to share her personal story was influenced by a variety of factors. For some, like Naomi Osaka and Simone Biles, media pressure played a significant role in their decision to speak out. Others, such as Serena Williams and Chloe Kim, seemed to embark on a journey of self-discovery that was prompted by their reflections on the highs and lows of their careers. Below, we delve into each athlete’s narrative to elaborate on this aspect.
Serena Williams
As a mother and an extraordinary athlete, Williams appeared honest when sharing her feelings about the pressure she felt being an athlete at the height of her game. During a recent conversation with Selena Gomez for Wondermind, a “mental fitness” platform co-founded by the actress, Williams confessed: “Everything is good. . .. It’s never really great, it’s always something that I think you deal with,” referring to “mental fitness.” She elaborated, “Whether it’s physical—like my back right now—or whether it’s mental. . . but it’s really about managing.” “It’s really about managing and how you’re able to do it, and how you’re able to kinda just manage your emotions, your feelings and everything and still be able to perform.” She said: “I’m not talking about performing on a big stage but performing in general. Performing as a mom for me, or just performing in day-to-day life” (Colon, 2022).
On the importance of setting boundaries, Williams said: Mental fitness for me is just really learning to shut down. I did this years ago before mental health was a topic among everyone’s mind. It was more just like, alright I’m shutting myself down today. Subconsciously it was something I’ve always done. . . . I have serious boundaries, and I don’t let anyone cross those boundaries with time (Shakhnazarova, 2022).
Offering a powerful reminder about the importance of self-care and prioritizing oneself, Williams explained, There was definitely a time I didn’t have boundaries and I think boundaries are so important to have in particular for a professional athlete that is trying to reach goals and to win because if you don’t have those boundaries, you’re not going to reach what you want to do (Shah, 2022).
Gracie Gold
Gracie Gold first went public with her mental health concerns in September 2017. She elaborated on these issues in a subsequent interview with The Washington Post, revealing her struggles with anxiety, depression, and an eating disorder. This disclosure came as she announced her decision to take a break from competitive figure skating to seek professional help for her mental health issues (Payne, 2017). While Gold openly shared her personal challenges, skaters, she acknowledged that both men and women have indicated that others might be silently grappling with similar issues, particularly in the context of eating disorders (Payne, 2017).
Later, after becoming an activist for mental health, Gold explained: There’s a lot of eating disorders in the skating community, but we don’t always know of them because it’s a lean body sport. Old fashioned ways of thinking, old fashioned diets, the toxic diet culture. . . [are] an area of mental health that is important to me. Unlike other addictions—you can cut out drugs or alcohol—but you can’t cut out food. Managing that addiction and the struggles. . . to be honored for my work in that mental health community, that really means a lot to me. (quoted in McCarve, 2022)
One recurrent theme across each athlete’s social media posts about their personal mental health was “it’s ok to not be ok,” quoting Osaka here. While some of the athletes focused on the series of events that led up to the recognition that they were not “ok,” they all circled around to the fact that it is not only acceptable but good to discuss mental health. In subsequent interviews with different media outlets, each athlete noted that in some cases, she faced pressure from the media to talk about what was going on. That is, while questions from journalists might have been what initially triggered the decision to go public with her respective story, if the athletes didn’t feel comfortable saying the words out loud, they would have remained silent. Osaka, for example, was on record saying she often struggled in the post-match press conferences because she was being asked to provide answers to questions about her performance that she had not fully processed. All athletes included in the present study made statements that suggested they felt pressure to discuss issues they were not ready to discuss. When the organizing body of the respective sports have stipulations about press conferences, athletes across sports could be left to discuss topics they personally do not feel comfortable discussing but feel obligated to do so because of the media pressure to answer questions.
Another recurrent theme across the athletes and their social media posts was related to pressure—self-imposed and otherwise—to be perfect. They were required to stay at the top of their respective games and never falter. Each emphasized the high external expectations, which seemed to be more triggering than the self-imposed pressure. Each athlete noted at some point how stressful and mentally draining it was to be held to exceptionally high standards without ever having an opportunity to just take a day to regroup. Gracie Gold told the press that the expectation for her to win the gold at the 2016 World Championships ultimately led her down the destructive path that included an eating disorder and exacerbated her mental health problems.
While not blaming her mental health challenges on the pandemic per se, Simone Biles noted, apparently referring to Covid, that “with so many differences in our lives, we’re all a lot closer to the edge of anxiety.” She added, “Certain environments push us closer to the edge—being in a place we’re not used to, being around people that annoy us, being hungry, being in a pandemic.”
While subtle differences marked the way that the athletes chose to tell their own stories and the ultimate timing of those public statements, pressure from a variety of sources seemed to be intrinsically linked to the messaging. Nevertheless, on a more positive note, each athlete seemed to take intentional steps to ensure that anyone else who might be experiencing something similar would know it is ok to feel that way. Normalizing any mental health challenge was a resounding theme across the athletes’ messaging and was further evidenced in the comments and support they received from other professional athletes.
Simone Biles
According to the statement from U.S.A. Gymnastics, Simone Biles decided she would not participate in the individual and team finals due to mental health concerns. Biles told her coach and a team physician that she was not mentally prepared enough to proceed; moreover, she feared injuring herself and did not want to risk the team’s medal prospects. Biles expressed concern that if she continued and injure herself, she would undermine the Team USA’s prospects of medaling. Biles admitted publicly that she was dealing with mental health problems and needed a break because “you want to do it for yourself, but you’re just too worried about what everybody else is going to say on the internet” (Beckman, 2021).
Prior to the Olympics, Biles faced challenges with certain skills and was battling a mental hurdle that hindered her routine execution. Such mental challenges are not rare in gymnastics. As noted by gymnastics coach Jess Graba, however, these challenges typically arise during practice, not competitions. Graba emphasized, “Many might not understand how mentally demanding the sport is.” He further elaborated that overcoming these mental barriers requires time before a gymnast regains confidence in her abilities (Macur, 2021).
Following her public announcement, some news organizations shifted their focus to the Russian Olympic Committee (ROC) women’s artistic gymnastics team, which clinched the gold medal in the team event, while the United States settled for silver. This marked a pivotal moment in Olympic history, given the decade-long dominance of the U.S. women’s team. The previous occasion when the United States did not secure gold in this event was back in 2008 (AP, 2021). In sum, some journalistic outlets focused on the outcome of the team finals where the ROC took the gold medal in an Olympic event where the United States had won the gold in the previous three Olympic Games. While no journalist or news outlet outwardly blamed Biles for not winning the gold medal, the shift in discussion to the medal count and the winners was a subtle suggestion that she was being blamed for the outcome.
Naomi Osaka
Kurt Streeter, the author of the “Sports of The Times” column, wrote an editorial that highlighted how Osaka sought to control her story with her thirteen sentence Instagram post announcing her withdrawal from the French Open. Streeter remarked on Osaka’s post, stating it was enough to shake the sports world and demonstrate the growing influence of athletes in controlling their narrative. He elaborated on Osaka’s achievements, noting her four Grand Slam wins since 2018, her activism on social issues, and her earnings of $37.4 million in 2020, making her the top-earning female athlete globally. Her rising stardom in tennis explains her reluctance to engage with the traditional media. It is our conclusion that while some believe the media overanalyzes athletes, others view Osaka as representing a new generation of overly pampered stars. Streeter concluded that Osaka’s Instagram explanation was undoubtedly a powerful statement, resonating with the current era’s tone and technology. However, Streeter insisted, people are eager to learn more beyond just a brief post (Streeter, 2021).
Naomi Osaka shared her opinion in an essay published by Time magazine in 2021, titled “It’s O.K. Not to Be O.K,” Osaka decided to go public with her mental health challenges and promote mental health in general. She wrote: It has become apparent to me that literally everyone either suffers from issues related to their mental health or knows someone who does. The number of messages I received from such a vast cross section of people confirms that. I think we can almost universally agree that each of us is a human being and subject to feelings and emotions.
She added: I don’t have all the answers. I do hope that people can relate and understand it’s O.K. to not be O.K., and it’s O.K. to talk about it. There are people who can help, and there is usually light at the end of any tunnel. . .. Michael Phelps told me that by speaking up I may have saved a life. If that’s true, then it was all worth it (Osaka, 2021).
Chloe Kim
Kim’s disclosures of her mental health challenges have often been a talking point in media coverage, beginning with a 2022 New York Times profile. Although she discussed snowboarding and her success in the sport, she focused on how the COVID pandemic affected her.
I didn’t really know what the symptoms of depression were—I just thought it meant you were sad, which is not the case. But I had other symptoms. I was tired all the time. I slept a lot. I wasn’t motivated to do anything. It was hard for me to get out of bed and go take care of myself,
Kim told the Times (Branch, 2022, para. 48). She went on to paint a more complete picture of her mental health journey in a Time magazine cover story, detailing her anxiety after her first Olympics and in college, as well as her struggle with depression (Gregory, 2022). However, much of the media coverage of Kim’s mental health came when she announced she would sit out the 2022-2023 professional snowboarding season for the sake of her mental health (Rosario, 2022). She said she needed to take an entire season off to recover and “reset” her mental health (Bailey, 2022).
“Everyone’s mental health journey is different, but for me, I’m acknowledging how beautifully difficult the past couple years have been for me,” Kim said to explain why she needed a break (specifically a vacation) and how she regularly attended therapy to help her (Vulpo, 2022). She did not explain the “beautiful” part of the difficulty, but it could have been a reference to how described herself as “totally good right now” or to her excitement over Togethxr, a new media company that she had formed with three other women athletes and that they describe as an “unapologetic platform where representation and equality is the norm.”
Kim also posted the Time cover to her Instagram feed saying she was “proud of herself for opening up a bit more and sharing things that she’s experienced/struggled with over the last few years.” Many other news outlets covered her mental health disclosure at the same time, and the piece was published days before she competed in the 2022 Olympics. This timing meant that coverage of her gold medal win also mentioned mental health.
The overarching narrative seems to be that elite women athletes, once perceived as unyielding pillars of strength, are now courageously unveiling their mental health challenges. Naomi Osaka’s poignant words resonate: “Each of us is a human being and subject to feelings and emotions.” These athletes emphasize the importance of self-care, acknowledging that even the best may grapple with off days or internal dilemmas. Osaka’s bold move to announce her competition withdrawal via social media marked a significant shift in athlete-fan communication. While she chose this direct approach, the other women athletes have primarily used social media to convey their gratitude for unwavering support, meaning, the other women athletes included in this study used their own social media platforms to thank fans for their support.
We pinpointed four primary factors that might contribute to mental health challenges for these athletes, including (1) high-level competition, which can lead to mental health concerns; (2) the effects of physical condition on mental health; (3) perceived pressure from the media; and (4) lack of awareness about mental health in sports, that is, the lack of discussion about mental health challenges from other athletes and across the media.
How High-Level Competition Can Lead to Mental Health Concerns
In the realm of global sports, high-level competition can adversely impact athletes’ mental health. While the notion that intense pressure can lead to depression is not novel, our analysis of these five professional female athletes offers a nuanced understanding of how elite competition can exacerbate mental health challenges. The relentless spotlight, incessant scrutiny, and the imperative to outperform in their respective disciplines can culminate in heightened anxiety, an overwhelming sense of burden, and ultimately, depression.
Chloe Kim exemplifies the challenges faced by high-level competitors. After winning her first gold medal in 2018, Kim’s fame skyrocketed, but her mental health began to deteriorate. She openly admitted to being in a “very dark place” (Gregory, 2022) and said, “I hated life” (Cash, 2022). Her anxiety became so intense that she found it difficult to leave her house (Burton, 2022). Kim told NBC News Affiliate News9: It’s unfair to be expected to be perfect, and I am not perfect in any way. But I think after my last Olympics, I put a lot of pressure on myself to be perfect at all times and that would cause a lot of issues at home (Tegna, 2022).
Kim described how her life at home became upturned by the increased presence of journalists at or near her home. Accomplishing everyday things was no longer simple or easy: “The minute I come home; I can’t even go to my g**d*** favorite place. It makes you angry. I just wanted a day where I was left alone and it’s impossible” (Reneau, 2022). The stark contrast between her 2018 experience and her return to the United States in 2022 highlights the toll that high-level competition can take on an athlete’s well-being. For Kim, moving from a relatively unknown competitor to a gold medalist and Olympic Champion shifted her world in a dramatic way. For her, the unending pressure from the media to perform and conform led to intense mental health anguish.
Simone Biles experienced similarly immense pressure during the Tokyo Olympic Games. As reported by Time (Park, 2021), Biles’ exceptional skills and past performances positioned her to lead Team USA to another Olympic gold in the team event at the Tokyo Olympics. The anticipation was heightened due to the 1-year delay of the Tokyo Olympics caused by the pandemic. She alluded to this in the context of discussing her status as the “GOAT” and the immense pressure she felt to win gold at her second Olympic Games. The weight of these expectations placed a tremendous burden on her mental well-being. Biles noted after the Olympic Games that such high stakes and the constant pursuit of perfection led to anxiety, self-doubt, and a significant strain on her mental health. Biles emphasized the constant pressure that comes with being at the pinnacle of one’s sport. Questions are lingering and never-ending about if the status can be maintained. “Can I be just as good as I was before? Can I continue to put on that perfect veneer when I feel like I’m crumbling inside? What will people think of me if I fail,” Biles asked rhetorically regarding pressure and mental health (Lee Health, 2022).
As Davis (2021) reported for Forbes, initial reports of Biles’ withdrawing from the team competition centered around a possible injury following an awkward landing after a vault. But later the same day, Biles spoke up and announced that she was taking care of her mental health, indeed, prioritizing that mental health. Davis (2021) concluded, “The stress and pressure that she (and most of the rest of the world) had placed on her 4’8” frame had finally taken its toll. She was making uncharacteristic mistakes, and she didn’t want to seriously injure herself or negatively impact her team’s chances of winning a gold.”
Likewise, Serena Williams encountered substantial pressure and faced immense scrutiny and expectations from the time she turned professional at just 14 years old. As she and her sister alternated between the top two world rankings, Williams has said she felt an added pressure to establish herself as one of the best women’s professional tennis players in history.
Zenia D’Cunha writing for ESPN online talks about Williams’ on-court triumphs and off-court challenges: That Serena Williams is, statistically, the greatest Grand Slam player of all times is not something that can be questioned. The on-court numbers, we know: 23 Grand Slam in singles—the most in Open era—along with 14 doubles and 2 mixed doubles, Career Golden Slam in both singles and doubles, two “Serena Slams.” Her off-court impact, particularly for female athletes and players of colour—cannot even be quantified. But as . . . she walks into the sunset of her tennis career—days short of turning 41 years old, having started her pro career at 14—it’s worth remembering another aspect of her legacy, which can fly under the radar when there is just so much to celebrate about this once-in-a-generation athlete: How Serena rose from adversity, how she responded to despair. (D’Cunha, 2022)
Wiliams’ career, which spanned almost two decades, represents what is often seen in all kinds of sports—the highs of success, wins and triumphs—and the lows of defeat, possible embarrassment, the loss of sponsors. D’Cunha’s (2022) piece for ESPN likewise highlighted how the pressure on Williams far exceeded expectations of performance on the court and was significantly more personal because of the attacks and criticism of Williams: She had to travel through an obstacle course of racism, sexism, crass comments from peers, life-threatening illness and life-saving surgeries, mental blocks (especially after the maternity break), the time of maternity break itself, and the expectations on her back from 1999 as she described the pressure of winning her first major as a teen. . . [T]here were the unfair and often ridiculous off-field criticism and controversies. From fans to former players, she has been constantly attacked, or being Black, for being a woman, for her body, and for being an entrepreneur. (D’Cunha, 2022)
Jack Kelly, writing for Forbes Magazine in 2021, said that for any professional athlete, when something goes wrong or an athlete “fails,” the public will immediately have questions and want answers: If the person performed poorly, you could feel the discomfort, simmering anger and frustration of the sports figure. It’s understandable that fans want to gain insights into their favorite player’s thoughts of what happened during the game. Although, at times, the post-game interviews come across as an unnecessarily contentious circus. You wonder if some of the questions are asked to elicit a “gotcha” moment, by goading the players into saying something controversial or inappropriate to garner headlines. (Kelly, 2021)
Figure skater Gracie Gold expressed similar concerns about the general pressures associated with being at the height of her sport, when the expectations went not only to perform but to win. Amber Kallor, an Allure Magazine columnist highlighted the challenge for Gold in figure skating as a sport that requires and rewards perfection: From gravity-defying triple jumps to Swarovski-studded costumes, every detail counts. Gracie Gold, who won a team bronze medal at the 2014 Olympics in Sochi and secured two National titles by the age of 20, made sure she pushed herself to the brink to meet (and often exceed) every expectation. Ice, however, is slippery—and getting up after a catastrophic fall from grace is hard (if not impossible) when everything rests on your reputation and a four-millimeter blade (Kallor, 2020).
Before stepping away from figure skating to get treatment for an eating disorder, Gold stated that she was constantly under pressure to be “flawless, angelic, plastic and Barbie-doll faced” for the public and was further expected to be the one winning the gold medal (Kallor, 2020). Gold noted that this was one of the many contributing factors of her eating disorder; stepping away was the only way she could save herself from the downward spiral.
The Effects of Physical Condition on Mental Health
For Serena Williams, who has faced multiple injuries and times when she felt that something wasn’t quite right, taking a break and stepping away from the court had the opposite effect: it led to depression, particularly during her foot surgeries in 2010 (AP, 2010). Williams told USA Today. “I definitely have not been happy. Especially when I had that second (foot) surgery, I was definitely depressed. I cried all the time. I was miserable to be around.” She told a Herald-Tribune journalist: “What’s going to make me happy is going on the court and holding up trophies, singles and doubles” (Writer, 2011).
Williams had her daughter Olympia in 2017 and immediately afterward, the severe complications she had giving birth caused postpartum depression (Scott, 2020). Most news reports about Williams focused on bringing awareness to postpartum depression, or postpartum “emotions” as Williams refers to them. Patricia Garcia, writing for Vogue Magazine in 2018, not only tried to normalize Williams’ experience but also let other women know that they were not alone: She’s right—many women feel this way too. In fact, up to one in seven women suffer from postpartum depression after the birth of a child, while 10 percent of new moms suffer from the lesser-known postpartum anxiety, where fretful thoughts and panic attacks are mixed in with feelings of PPD, which range from hopelessness and sadness to thoughts of suicide. Thankfully, as the years go by, more and more women, especially celebrities with large platforms, are being honest about their experiences with motherhood mood disorders. (Garcia, 2018)
Williams discussed her postpartum depression on social media in a manner more similar to sharing her own vulnerability with a close friend. She revealed on her Instagram account how her post-match disappointments and postpartum depression affected her life (Reuters, 2018). By revealing her deeper personal sentiments on social media, she allowed the public to see her as a genuine, flesh-and-blood person, as opposed to an unapproachable superwoman.
In 2018, Williams suffered the worst defeat of her career in the Mubadala Silicon Valley Classic against Britain’s Johanna Konta. Williams was defeated in straight sets in 52 minutes. In her social media posts, she stated that her performance had been affected by pregnancy and being a mother. “Last week was not easy for me,” she wrote on both Instagram and Twitter. “I work a lot, I train, and I’m trying to be the best athlete I can be,” Williams wrote in her post. “I felt like I was not a good mom. Most of you moms deal with the same thing. Whether stay-at-home or working, finding that balance with kids is a true art. You are the true heroes. I’m here to say: if you are having a rough day or week—it’s ok —I am, too!!!” Fans and other celebrities sent messages of support, thanks, and admiration to share how Williams’ post helped them feel “normal” (Dodgson, 2018).
While the other athletes in this case study did not deal with pregnancy-related health issues, they all discussed injuries and/or surgeries they had and how these not only changed the way they played their game but also affected them mentally and emotionally. Chloe Kim’s journey further highlights the cause of the mental health challenges faced by athletes—dealing with significant injuries. After her Olympic debut in 2018, Kim had to confront the physical and emotional toll of injuries. She publicly disclosed sustaining a concussion during her third run at the Beijing Olympics, adding to the pressures she faced. This injury, along with an ankle break in 2019, forced her to consider her identity beyond that of a gold medalist and elite athlete and see herself as a human who was as susceptible to physical injuries as anyone else.
Professional athletes are often expected to push through injuries, often returning to the court, field, or venue without full injury assessments being done or against the advice of a medical professional (Janovitz, 2014). In an essay on this point for the Columbia Journalism Review, Gerald Eskenazi (2016), a sports journalist for the New York Times, told the story of the Montreal Canadiens playing the Washington Rangers in 1959 when the Canadiens’ goalie, Jacques Plante, took a puck to the face, was carted off the ice, treated with stitches and then sent back on the ice 20 min later. Eskenazi noted that at that time, especially in hockey, the mind-set and the norm was to “tough it out” and return to play. When Plante returned to the ice, he wore a face mask to help protect the seven stitches that had just been put in. Other players on the ice taunted him, but at that time, “the culture of the times mandated that athletes get hurt and take it.” The atmosphere that surrounds elite athletes is something often weighing on athletes’ minds because they know the standard is different when faced with an injury (Eskenazi, 2016).
Janovitz (2014) noted that athletes must navigate the frustration, fear, and anxiety that come with setbacks and the uncertainty of their future in the sport. They may experience a loss of identity, as their sense of self is deeply intertwined with their athletic abilities. Therefore, the interplay between physical injuries and mental health concerns in the realm of high-level competition is highly relevant.
Perceived Pressure From the Media
The media’s framing of an athlete’s injury may often turn on the context of the outcome–did the team win or lose? If a team wound up losing after a star player was taken out with an injury, the door for speculation may intensify because of the unknowns: would the outcome be different with the star player? Was the star athlete “faking” an injury because of the enormous pressure to win? Why didn’t the athlete return to the performance? We, as the authors of this monograph, take as axiomatic that media portrayals of an athlete’s journey, especially during challenging times, can significantly influence public perception. This external pressure, combined with the athlete’s internal struggles, can create a volatile environment that mitigates against their mental well-being. The narrative constructed by the media not only shapes the athlete’s public image but also has the potential to affect their self-perception and confidence.
Regarding the factor of “perceived pressure from the media,” our analysis is divided into two distinct sections. The initial section focuses on the role of conventional media, highlighting the challenges athletes encounter when interacting with the press. To elucidate this, we primarily reference Naomi Osaka as a case in point. Then we explore the realm of athletes’ social media, emphasizing the detrimental effects of negative online public opinions that athletes must navigate. Chloe Kim’s experiences with adverse messages on social media serve as a principal illustration to shed light on this phenomenon. These negative messages on social media reflected messages or comments the public made on the athletes’ social media posts.
First, the research here reveals the significant challenges athletes face when dealing with the press. The athletes discussed the added anxiety, pressure, and scrutiny that accompany mandatory press conferences, media coverage, and online interactions. Heaviside et al. (2021) referenced a retired female athlete, who was not part of our study and asked Heaviside and colleagues to remain anonymous, said that she was cautious about what she said in the conference or interview, fearing that journalists might misinterpret or oversimplify her words, which could then be widely disseminated to the public. This athlete, who won many gold medals in global sporting contexts, including two Paralympic Games, said that sometimes the media even “decide” what her next goal should be: Shortly before the 2010 Commonwealth Games, I won the European Championships with a world record and returned to the UK to discover that our NGB (National Governing Body) media representative had told the BBC that I was capable of winning gold in Delhi. Now the expectation for me to win was printed in bold letters. I went mental because if I didn’t do it, I was going to look like a wally. (Heaviside et al., 2021, p. 6).
Many of the athletes we studied described very similar challenges with the press and did not use the word “mental” in the joking way that Heaviside et al.’s source did. Whether it was mandatory press conferences after an event, or the general coverage that goes along with excelling in their respective sports, each noted the press only added to their ongoing anxiety, self-imposed pressure, pressure from a sponsor, or pressure/critique from the public.
In the preceding section, we touched upon the connection between Naomi Osaka’s depression and the pressures exerted by the media. She admitted that her interactions with the press worsened her anxiety because she would not have the chance to even process a win or a loss before she was put in the position of having to answer questions by the media via the post-match press conference or face a fine from tournament organizations. In this section, we delve deeper into the specific interactions between Osaka and journalists. Examining the questions posed to her and her subsequent reactions and responses generates a more nuanced understanding of the challenges she and other athletes may face and the dynamics at play.
On August 16, 2021, after her withdrawal from the French Open in May, Naomi Osaka attended a press conference for the Western & Southern Open in Ohio. According to multiple reports including one in The Guardian (2021), her agent, Stuart Duguid, said that she was asked an aggressively toned question about her mental health and her decision to leave the French Open caused her to become visibly emotional, requiring a brief pause (Martin, 2021).
Cincinnati Enquirer columnist Paul Daugherty asked Osaka, during the press conference referenced above, about her relationship with journalists: The question was that you’re not especially fond of dealing with the media, especially in this format. My question was, you also have outside interests beyond tennis that are served by having the platform that the media presents to you. How do you think you might be able to best balance the two?
Osaka responded: “I’m not really sure how to balance the two, I am figuring out at the same time as you are, I would say” (ESPN, 2021).
Subsequently, a reporter inquired about Osaka’s training for the upcoming hard-court season and her thoughts on the recent earthquake in Haiti. Because Osaka’s father is Haitian, however, she began to cry and left the platform for about 4 min in an apparent effort to compose herself (Zagoria, 2021). Four minutes after leaving the microphone, the news conference moderator and Osaka could be heard deliberating the next steps. The moderator suggested Osaka could answer the last question posed to her before taking a pause and then transitioning to speaking with Japanese media (ESPN, 2021).
Stuart Duguid, Osaka’s agent, subsequently told a New York Times freelance writer that the bully at the Cincinnati Enquirer is the epitome of why player / media relations are so fraught right now. Everyone on that Zoom will agree that his tone was all wrong and his sole purpose was to intimidate. Really appalling behavior. And this insinuation that Naomi owes her off court success to the media is a myth—don’t be so self-indulgent (ESPN, 2021).
Duguid pointed to Paul Daugherty as a representative example of why players and media were having difficult relationships.
Serena Williams, a 23-time Grand Slam champion with a longer professional tenure than the other four athletes studied here, attended numerous challenging press conferences. When she pursued the Grand Slam—a coveted achievement of winning all four major tournaments in a single calendar year—she was subjected to immense and sustained media pressure regarding her ambitions. For many professional tennis players, both male and female, this speculation often begins after a victory at the Australian Open in January, setting the stage for 11 months of anticipation and conjecture about the possibility of achieving a Grand Slam. Therefore, during a press conference following her 2015 third-round win at Wimbledon, Serena Williams expressed her desire to avoid further discussions about her pursuit of the calendar Grand Slam, a feat not achieved in tennis since Steffi Graf in 1988. She said: “When you talk about it every time, you can’t help but think about it. It’s been okay to free my brain from that” (McGregor, 2015).
Media framing of these stories and events, while sometimes positive and favorable, was also laden with criticism and questioning. Rather than accepting what an athlete was saying about her ability to play or compete, the media often came after the athletes, as in Osaka’s case, to force statements or explanations because for the journalists, simply taking a break or stepping back wasn’t acceptable. As it ties back to Entman’s definition of framing (1993) where he argues that “framing consistently offers a way to describe the power of a communicating text” (51). He Entman also says, framing, at its core, is about selection and salience. Through the analysis of online media coverage of the women athletes, we were able to establish patterns and themes that were present more often than others or present at the exclusion of others. As writers select to use specific language about an athlete or about mental health, public understanding of that athlete or issue also starts to become shaped. While this study is in no way a study of effects, Entman’s argument is that public perceptions indeed are shaped by the communicating text; therefore, if certain elements of an athlete’s press conference or social media post are emphasized more frequently than other aspects, the narratives are subsequently shaped.
Social Media Commentary
Kim attributes her mental health challenges to the pressure that comes with success and TO a hostile online environment. Shortly after being awarded her 2018 gold medal, she received an Instagram comment that called her a “cocky ass bitch”—something she still remembers and points to as the first trigger for her distress (Branch, 2022). Later, some of her own national team teammates began to bully her online, apparently resenting her success (Gregory, 2022). In a conversation with People Magazine’s Natasha Dado, Kim said: “I felt pressure to be perfect all the time, and it drained me. I was genuinely angry for a while because I was too concerned about what everyone else would think about it. It became toxic” (Dado, 2021). Kim told Kristin Conard, writing for The List, that because of her very quick rise to fame, she wasn’t equipped to handle the immediate pressure from the press to be on all the time and to be “this perfect role model” (Conard, 2022). However, Kim also noted that, like several of the other athletes, she has faced racism, dealt with her share of harassment on social media, and was left turning off notifications because of it.
Lack of Awareness About Mental Health in Sports
Christy Wang, writing for Rewired, noted that journalists can easily package and “sell” an injury, especially when an athlete has seemingly overcome an injury and gone on to succeed: Traditionally, media reports of athletes have focused entirely on physical wellness and ability, fostering an absolute correlation between physical health and athletic performance. The media narrative around sports injuries has been heroic and sympathetic—from reporting Tiger Woods’ historic 2008 U.S. Open win on a broken leg to detailing Kobe Bryant’s Achilles tear in 2013. Physical injuries are recognized, analyzed, and normalized. Rehab is considered a commonality and an integral aspect of playing and watching sports. Until very recently, the state of an athlete’s physical wellbeing was almost synonymous with performance, excellence, and overall wellbeing. Mental health, consisting of our “emotional, psychological, and social well-being,” is an important factor of our overall health, yet its presence is almost nonexistent in the public realm of sports. (Wang, 2021)
This description of how overall health and well-being are framed, with a focus on injured or speculated injuries, help shape public understanding about athletes and the many pressures they face to not only perform and be on-point in media interactions but also in the way their own injuries—physical or mental—are framed. As said previously, some writers would ask the women athletes pressing questions about having an injury if the athlete did not go as far in the competition, withdrew from a competition, or did not play in a competition because injury is often seen as an excusable out.
In Gold’s case, she entered a 45-day program to address a variety of issues including an eating disorder, depression, and anxiety. “‘It wasn’t just one thing,’” Gold told The Guardian of the still-private events that triggered a chaotic period of intense emotional highs and lows.
That’s because people don’t fully understand at times. They want it to be this happened, you got depressed and then this was the result. It was a perfect storm of a bunch of tiny things that added up so quickly (Hunt, 2020).
Gold describes her mental health story as starting when a coach made a comment about her weight right before the start of a practice. Gold said her coach made a negative comment about her weight not leading to peak performance. After that, Gold said, her obsession with eating, or rather not eating, led her down a dangerous path of unhealthy eating behaviors. Gold noted, however, that it was at this same time that she was performing at her best. She therefore attributed her successes to her obsessive/compulsive eating behavior. Gold did note that after just over a year of this, her mental health declined, leading to suicidal thoughts. “When I wasn’t getting better, I always thought I could check out early. That was an option on the table” (Hunt, 2020). Once reaching the point Gold described as “everything in my life lit itself on fire simultaneously,” she withdrew from the competition and tried to find her way back to physical and mental health and well-being. After going public with her story, many other athletes applauded her bravery and courage to take care of herself. But she noted that this combination of factors meant she was still the subject of criticism and negative feedback from sports journalists.
Gold’s disclosure about her eating disorder and mental illness came several years after she was experiencing the problems, and she initially refrained from seeking help due to her apprehension that her “reality would be dismissed.” She revealed that people who were somewhat familiar with her reacted in this manner mentioned above, dismissing her reality, wondering how someone like Gracie Gold could possibly feel depressed. “You might feel down, but being depressed is when you’re homeless on the street and have nothing to live for. That’s depression,” she reported that these unnamed people told her (Negley, 2018). Gold’s statements hint at the common stereotypes and stigma associated with mental illness; moreover, because of these misconceptions, many individuals, especially those in the public eye, may feel isolated and hesitant to share their struggles.
After withdrawing from the Tokyo Olympics’ all-around competition, Simone Biles revealed her struggles with mental health. She experienced a phenomenon known as the “twisties” in gymnastics, which can be perilous. Biles accused journalists of being suspicious of her statement that her withdrawal was due to mental health and said some were unwilling to believe her. Biles emphasized the dangers of her situation, stating, “I don’t think you realize how dangerous this is.” Clinical psychologist Brandi Liles from UC Davis Children’s Hospital expressed sadness that Biles would no longer perform but also pride that Biles had decided to listen to her body and mind. Before withdrawing, Biles had consulted with the team doctor Marcia Faustin, who is also at UC Davis. Liles also recognized the pressures elite athletes like Biles face and stressed the importance of prioritizing their mental well-being (UC Davis Health, 2021).
A few people attacked her decision; for example, two radio show hosts questioned why Biles was considered brave for deciding to withdraw (Davis, 2021). But most people applauded Biles for prioritizing her mental health. One columnist who works with professionals who are under a great deal of pressure to be perfect noted that this pressure, whether real or perceived, eventually takes its toll (Davis, 2021). She added: Mental health may promote skepticism because it’s invisible. We can’t see the struggle like we can see a broken bone or the pain of a pulled muscle. Because it’s invisible, we feel entitled to judge it, to say nothing of the fact that we expect Olympic caliber athletes to simply suck it up and drive on. (Davis, 2021).
Chloe Kim claimed that her physical and mental health are equally important to her success (Weisholtz, 2022). While sports psychologists often say that the mental game is as important as the physical game, the pressures that women and men athletes face make finding that balance more challenging. Kim’s struggle with mental health was hidden in the dark until she chose to talk about it. She cites hurtful comments on social media and a rapid rise to fame as main contributors but also doesn’t discount the current state of society. After disclosing, she is now more open to talking about mental health and things that help her manage it.
In sum, each of the five athletes has noted publicly that while physical injuries are a part of being an athlete, the “suck it up” mentality significantly complicated their efforts to determine when to push through and when to take a break. They noted that when mental illness became the issue, rather than physical illness or injury, very little grace was extended to them. This essentially forced them to need to choose between their well-being and what might be considered the world’s expectations.
Tajfel’s (1978) definition of social identity—the way an individual perceives himself/herself through the lens of various in- and out-groups—is particularly useful for studying women athletes, given that the first and main construct of their identity is as athletes. That identity as an athlete could lead to the formulation of important in-groups, but it could just as easily lend itself to developing even more out-groups, who do not function in roles of social support.
Social support from in- and out-groups can certainly be found on social media platforms. For the purposes of the present study, the in-group refers to other professional athletes; while an out-group was anyone who was not but who might have made a comment on an athlete’s post. Just as the athletes used social media to help share their stories about mental health, it also allowed others to demonstrate support for them, although it was not always used in that way. With the rise of social media, younger athletes can communicate directly with their fans.
For instance, Simone Biles withdrew from the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games on July 27, 2021. A couple of days later, Biles posted messages on Twitter (July 28) and Instagram (July 29): “The outpouring love & support I’ve received has made me realize I’m more than my accomplishments and gymnastics which I never truly believed before” (Biles, 2021). Eventually, on August 3, Biles went back to compete on the balance beam and won a bronze medal, a medal that meant “more than all the golds because I’ve pushed through so much the last five years and the last week,” she said during a Today show interview. She stated that the experience helped her discover who she was, that she was “more than my medals in gymnastics. I’m a human being, and I’ve done some courageous things outside of this sport” (Hohman, 2021). Following Simone Biles’ withdrawal from the all-around competition at the Tokyo Olympics, she faced a wide range of public commentary about her decision. Many athletes across sports publicly supported her decision to step aside. However, other athletes said that mental health challenges are an inherent part of their profession, suggesting that if she couldn’t handle it, she needed to step away for good (NBC Olympics, 2021).
Chloe Kim found support in friends from college who did not know about her career. Arguably, this could be considered an out-group as she was finding support outside of her fellow athletes and teammates. However, she also said that her own teammates (in-group) bullied her after winning her first gold medal. Other athletes noted the support of family members. For Serena Williams, it was her pro tennis star sister Venus Williams who stepped in to provide social support. Venus knew and understood all that her sister Serena had experienced because she had experienced it herself.
Osaka mentioned that it was meaningful to her that public figures have supported her, encouraged her, and sent kind words to her, including former first lady Michelle Obama, Olympic swimming legend Michael Phelps, NBA star Steph Curry, and tennis great Novak Djokovic (Osaka, 2021). Osaka said she sent a message to Simone Biles when she saw her experiencing similar challenges with mental health and the pressure to perform. “I sent her a message, but I also want to give her space because I know how overwhelming it can feel,” Osaka said (ESPN, 2021). Simone Biles credited Osaka for encouraging her to prioritize her mental health (Stancil, 2021).
Biles has received similar support from in and out-group individuals. People from celebrities to politicians have expressed support for Biles. White House Press Secretary Jen Psaki, for example, said: “Gratitude and support are what Simone Biles deserves. Still the GOAT and we are all just lucky to be able to see her in action.” Aly Raisman, a retired U.S. gymnast and Olympic gold medalist who competed with Biles in Rio, told CNN that gymnastics is difficult despite Biles making it look easy (Beckman, 2021). “I’m just completely devastated and obviously so worried and just hoping Simone’s OK,” she said.
Just a friendly reminder: Olympic athletes are human & they’re doing the best they can. . .Even the best athletes in the world, they have good days and bad days, and I commend her for her bravery and speaking up and doing what’s right for the team.
What remains consistent across the study of the athletes and the type of support they received when making public disclosures about their mental health is that the feedback was mostly positive. While in some cases journalists questioned the athletes and their decision not to push through, as noted above, those comments were less frequent. The positive feedback the athletes garner aids them in seeing themselves beyond just the role of “the athlete.” It enables them to adopt a broader identity, recognizing themselves as individuals who can take breaks from peak performance rather than always maintaining it. This shift in perception underscores the importance of holistic support systems, emphasizing the human aspect of athletes and the multifaceted challenges they face.
Discussion
This project involved both examining the online versions of mainstream media coverage of five women athletes when they first went public with their mental health struggles and examining what those professional athletes said themselves as they shared their experiences about their mental health concerns through their social media accounts. Social identity theory and framing served as the underlying theoretical frameworks. The research questions were designed to better understand how each athlete came forward about her mental health experiences and in what context of her professional career it happened; identify whether the athletes pointed the finger at specific issues/people that contributed to their mental health struggles; and determine how or if social support was received from what kinds of social groups.
One of the overarching narratives of the findings was the notion of expectations and pressure—self-imposed or from other sources. Within competitive sports scenarios, famous athletes often carry high expectations from their countries, fans, teammates, coaches, and even opponents (Mellalieu et al., 2009). For example, prior to the start of the Olympic Games, it is not uncommon for the media to gravitate toward athletes who are expected to do well, win a Gold medal or help a team take a Gold. When this happens and stories about these athletes are repeated across media sources, the public then, presumably, could develop expectations for those athletes as well. Simone Biles, having previously won Gold in the Rio Olympic Games, entered the Tokyo Olympic Games as a favorite. She had outperformed other gymnasts on the world stage, and she was the presumed winner in Tokyo. Expectations significantly influence the public’s perception of athletes, and this effect is often magnified by media coverage. Concern is growing that the media tend to present events from a simplified perspective, adding excessive pressure on athletes. This portrayal often emphasizes victory at all costs, overshadowing the well-being and personal struggles of the athletes themselves. As an example, Simone Biles inspired many girls of color to participate in a predominantly white sport; she showed them how they could become the global face of gymnastics (Macur, 2021). She said, “I’m going to go out there and represent the U.S.A., represent World Champions Centre, and represent Black and brown girls over the world” (Igoe, 2021). However, this subjected Biles to tremendous pressure to maintain her high level of performance, especially given her special identity as one of only a few non-White gymnasts. While the media did not necessarily put pressure on Biles to meet expectations for the sake of girls of color who might want to participate in gymnastics, it was the self-imposed pressure that added to the other expectations she felt about having to be the best and bring home the gold. Biles, and the other athletes included in this study, all discussed the pressure they have felt to be successful, and as all said, this pressure can and often does take a toll.
Intense competition within international sports can negatively impact the mental well-being of athletes, particularly those who are younger. Gulliver and colleagues (2012) investigated the challenges and aids related to seeking mental health assistance among elite young athletes. Their findings revealed that a significant number of these young athletes grapple with mental health issues. Obstacles like insufficient awareness about mental health and prior adverse experiences often hinder them from reaching out for support. The trajectories of athletes such as Serena Williams, Simone Biles, Naomi Osaka, Gracie Gold, and Chloe Kim underscore the phenomenon of early success (see Appendix A) in the world of sports and the subsequent pressure they encounter. Therefore, one takeaway from this brings about one important question, which is to consider the role of age when many of them are not adequately prepared to handle the immense external and internal pressures that come with reaching heightened success in their careers. Each athlete included in the present study began her professional career as a teenager, and their respective starts in their careers meant facing a new and heightened level of press interactions and coverage by the media.
Our study not only explores the media influences on women athletes but also provides insights regarding how athletes see themselves, centered on the concept of social identity. Thompson-Radford and Skey’s (2021) study of how Serena Williams was able to present herself as an athlete-mother suggested that Williams’ own use of social media meant that parenting could be a part of her business identity, indeed one that obtained sponsorships. By doing so, Williams not only made challenges faced by working mothers more relatable but also leveraged her influence to shed light on the realities of being a “working mother.” In contrast, the mainstream media portrays athlete-mothers as either transgressors or “supermoms.” For elite women athletes, these competing identities, such as being a mother and meanwhile being an athlete in the case of Serena Williams, can be especially challenging: In some cases, it forces them to choose one identity over the other and in other cases prioritize one over the other. Williams has been very outspoken about how conflicted she felt after returning to professional tennis because she worried about the effect it would have on her daughter. In August, 2022, around the time Williams announced her retirement, she told an Insider interviewer: Mom guilt is real. I don’t know if I’m a good mom, and I don’t know if my method works, but I’m very hands-on with my daughter, and it was the same with our parents.” “I never wanted to have to choose between tennis and a family. I don’t think it’s fair. If I were a guy, I wouldn’t be writing this because I’d be out there playing and winning while my wife was doing the physical labor of expanding our family (Ridley, 2022).
Track and distance runners Allyson Felix and Aliphine Tuliamuk, not included in this study, were told sponsorships would be on the line (Felix) or that they were not allowed to travel to global events like the Olympic Games with a baby in tow (Tuliamuk). While many women athletes have grappled with challenging decisions regarding their careers and personal lives, such challenges are not exclusive to the sports realm. Women in various occupations often confront similar dilemmas, particularly due to the heightened performance expectations in their professions. However, it is undeniable that this concern is exacerbated in sports as players are continually pushed to demanding performance standards, resulting in a delicate balance between their professional goals and personal identities.
This study also provides a look at how women athlete’s mental health disclosures were framed in the media and how it affected their decisions moving forward. Media framing is the deliberate selection and emphasis of specific content within a mediated space to shape the narrative around a specific topic (Entman, 1993). As mentioned, woman athletes are frequently subjected to stereotypes, including being perceived as weaker than men and as anomalies when participating in male-dominated sports. This demeaning framing is supported by various studies (Bernstein, 2002; Pascoe et al., 2022; Shifflett & Revelle, 1994).
For example, through conventional techniques of media framing, athletes were often labeled based on their appearance. For example, Chris Evert, the iconic American tennis player who dominated the sport in the 1970s and early 1980s, was frequently dubbed the “girl next door” and “America’s Sweetheart.” Despite embodying an innocent representation of America, she faced substantial criticism. This portrayal of Evert as simple, gentle, and flawless evoked both admiration and jealousy (Kirkpatrick, 1976). When examining media coverage of other professional women’s tennis players like Martina Navratilova, Steffi Graf, Venus Williams, Gabrielle Sabatini, or Anna Kournikova, the media did often rely on mental shortcuts or previously used themes to describe players (Yip, 2018). Both Venus and Serena Williams were often described using adjectives that were equitable to animals (Bissell, 2006); Steffi Graf was often discussed in the context of her physical power and at times, her physicality was discussed in the context of male tennis players (Bissell, 2006); Stories about Monica Seles often included mention of her grunting on the court (Downey, 1990). When these descriptors continued to be used, it reduced the number of ways the public might view the athletes. These frames did perpetuate stereotypes, and as literature from decades ago suggested, it was more common in coverage of female athletes, often reported on by male writers or commentators, where this was the case. (Bissell, 2006; Bissell & Butler, 2013; Bissell & Duke, 2019; Bissell & Smith, 2013; Smith & Bissell, 2014).
Historically, traditional media outlets primarily highlighted the victors, occasionally focusing on the defeated. At times, they delved into the reasons behind these outcomes. The simplistic binary framing of “win or lose” can be distressing for athletes. Biles repeatedly expressed in interviews her apprehension about being perceived as weak. Biles’s concerns about this perception significantly influenced her decision to publicly discuss her mental health. It’s noteworthy that while athletes express concerns about media pressure impacting their mental well-being, many still opt to use social media for their personal mental health revelations. By using social media, athletes bypass traditional media outlets and the accompanying risk of being characterized in a way they want to avoid. It is in this way that athletes are now able to step beyond the traditional boundaries imposed by the media who covered them can employ their own storytelling skills to ensure the narrative reflects the stories the athletes want told.
Our starting premise has been that portrayals of mental health disclosures are profoundly shaped by both the framing of the narrative and the perspective of “the storyteller.” In addition, we emphasized the dual roles that media play in this context. First, we observed athletes acting as message producers. With the advent of social media, athletes can now directly share their emotions and thoughts through their personal accounts, bypassing the traditional route of making formal announcements at press conferences. Conversely, in the second role, athletes are seen as receivers, absorbing information from various sources. While the media often amplifies positive feedback received by athletes, as highlighted in our study, it is important to note that instances of criticism, judgment, and negativity exist. Osaka, Kim, and Williams encountered situations where the news media either misrepresented their stories, overemphasized certain aspects that didn’t wholly represent them, or influenced public opinion on specific issues that required clarification. As a result, they turned to their personal social media platforms to share their narratives about expectations, performance, pressure, and mental health. In short, the athletes examined in this case study decided to take control of the narratives that were developing about themselves and tell their own stories. However, as Osaka noted, the timeline in which this happened wasn’t necessarily on the timeline she felt comfortable with, but she felt forced to tell her side before the media frenzy “derailed her entirely.”
Regarding the concept of metajournalism, we defined it as a means of self-reflection on the practice of journalism and improving the quality and integrity of news reporting. A pivotal point of considering metajournalism is the notion of a “critical incident” as delineated by Zelizer (1992). We posit that such an incident could manifest in the public revelation by renowned athletes like Michael Phelps or Serena Williams about their personal battles with mental health. Such disclosures, addressing a topic that was once heavily stigmatized, have heightened athletes’ cognizance of mental well-being. Meanwhile, the advent and proliferation of social media, coupled with athletes harnessing these platforms to shape their narratives, enable athletes to bypass journalists altogether and to tell their own stories.
The media have a responsibility to provide accurate portrayals of mental health and mental illness; inaccurate and insensitive depictions can perpetuate stigma. We contend that as athletes began to be more candid about mental health challenges, it compelled journalists to be more introspective and reevaluate their conventional approaches to reporting on mental health. One recommendation for future practice might be to encourage journalists to examine the social media content of the athletes they are reporting on and writing about to see if the athletes are discussing their stories and experiences differently. This step does not guarantee a holistic portrayal of an athlete but might provide additional points of view about the athletes. If journalists fail to capture the essence of the athlete’s perspective, audiences have the alternative of turning directly to the athletes’ social media profiles for firsthand information. This evolving dynamic underscores the need for journalists to contemplate a “collaborative approach,” when crafting stories alongside athletes. Moreover, elite women athletes have a pivotal role in advancing mental health literacy and destigmatization. This advocacy is particularly crucial in the sports field, especially for the well-being and development of young athletes.
Reconsidering the Definition of GOAT
We propose a reevaluation of the definition of GOAT, a term often reserved for those with unparalleled achievements and records. However, we advocate for a broader understanding of this title.
Williams, during her retirement interview with Vogue magazine, acknowledged that some may argue she is not the GOAT because she did not break Margaret Court’s record of 24 Grand Slams. Nevertheless, she asked people to consider her accomplishments as a mother and a player. “I went from a C-section to a second pulmonary embolism to a Grand Slam final,” Williams said.
I played while breastfeeding. I played through postpartum depression. But I didn’t get there. I didn’t show up the way I should have or could have. But I showed up 23 times, and that’s fine. It’s extraordinary. But these days, if I have to choose between building my tennis résumé and building my family, I choose the latter (Haskell, 2022).
Similarly, Biles is often considered the “GOAT” of women’s gymnastics, having won more medals than any other gymnast in the history of the sport. She received support when she went public with mental health concerns. However, still some people were vocal about their view that she had let down the sport, her teammates, and her country. For example, one article from Reddit’s r/changemyview questioned her status as GOAT: She quit on her team during an event. She did not have an injury. She panicked and said she couldn’t do it. Quitting on your team is not GOAT behavior.. . . Kobe has his mamba mentality. Played through an injury. Biles gets paid to do what she does. She trains to do what she does. If she didn’t feel ready to compete at the Olympics she shouldn’t have shown up. She should not have quit on her team. Having a bad day doesn’t give you the right to be a bad teammate, especially if you’re the captain (Jon3681, 2021).
The post by “Jon” was followed by 70 comments defending Biles. Nevertheless, some of the people posting these comments agreed that Biles’ GOAT status should be reconsidered: I agree with your GOAT comment. I’m all for her doing what’s safe for her because she’s in an extremely dangerous sport, but her inability to deal with the immense pressure certainly drops her down that list for me simply because the ability to cope with having the world on your shoulders and still perform is that mental greatness that I expect the GOAT to have. . ..And then I have to question priorities. These people are role models for millions of kids and adults alike. Playing through injuries isn’t something you want a role model to be doing because your kids are going to imitate it. It really should be okay to not be okay. And so, while what Biles did might drop her down the GOAT list for me in some ways, I do respect her decision and I think that it makes her an even better role model for the next generation (ytzi13, 2021).
Again, based partly on our reading of the narratives of journalists, athletes, and sports audiences, we argue that the definition of greatness in sports is shaped by a complex interplay of performance, personal struggles, and societal expectations. We underscore the idea of rethinking the GOAT definition, positing that an athlete’s personal journey, challenges, and overall contributions should hold as much significance as their achievements on the court, mat, ice, or snow.
Promoting Mental Health Literacy and Destigmatization
Our findings indicate that elite women athletes are actively committed to raising awareness about the significance of mental health and helping the public understand its importance. Reporters such as CNN’s Leah Asmelash pointed out that if it weren’t for very public “conversations” about athletes like Simone Biles or Serena Williams, mental health and mental illness would remain largely unheard and few people would know about the importance of self-care and prioritizing oneself, something many women often struggle with (Asmelash, 2022). Therefore, few would understand mental illness and its prevalence in sports (Asmelash, 2022).
However, as academics and professionals have said, stigma is often one of the many factors keeping women (and men) silent (Bissell & Parrott, 2013). As the process of navigating her mental health continues, Gold has emerged as a passionate advocate for athletes and an influential voice regarding mental health, particularly among Olympians and other elite competitors. This topic has gained significant traction and is now being discussed more openly (McCarve, 2022). After a hiatus of almost 2 years, Gold revealed her plan to make a comeback in competitive skating. Indeed, she participated in the 2018 ISU Grand Prix event. During the January 2018 U.S. Championships, she received a standing ovation from the audience, despite finishing in 12th place (Schwindt, 2018).
Throughout her return to the sport, Gold has actively raised awareness about mental health, using her platform to address the topic. She participated as a speaker at the IOC-organized 2019 International Athlete Forum and appeared on an Olympic Channel podcast. During the forum, she candidly expressed her initial reluctance to discuss mental health due to the associated stigma, which made her feel isolated and insufficiently resilient. Gold also participated in HBO’s 2020 featured documentary, “The Weight of Gold,” which was produced by all-time swimming great Michael Phelps (Prahl, 2020). In an interview for Olympic Channel (McCarve, 2021) regarding this HBO’s documentary, Gold said: I felt like this documentary was really necessary for the skating community, for the Olympic community, for just the sport community (as a whole). There hasn’t been (a documentary) that has talked about the underbelly and the dark side and some of the real low points that we as athletes face.” Gold said. “It’s not a reflection of character or how strong you are. There’s no Olympic medal for who can suffer in silence the longest.
Osaka has been attempting to eliminate the stigma associated with mental illness by working with the Workplace Wellness Platform Modern Health. “Naomi’s bravery in publicly sharing her own struggles has already helped to destigmatize and reframe the conversation around mental health,” said Alyson Watson, chief executive officer of Modern Health. “Together we have the same mission—to decrease stigma and increase access to care so that people can get the help they need when they need it (Gonzales, 2022).”
Each of the five athletes we examined presented a unique narrative regarding their mental health journey. These individual stories can potentially foster a broader awareness and comprehension of mental health, emphasizing that no single box fits everyone the same way.
Limitations
Our focus on five athletes means that the findings can be used to understand part of the larger narrative about gender, sport, and mental health. But this doesn’t offer a complete picture of these women’s experiences as athletes, given that, as noted above, we included only some of the content identified across media platforms about each athlete’s mental health narrative. Scholars doing additional research on this topic should consider including more athletes (not merely the most famous or prominent ones), gathering more media content, and potentially looking at media coverage before the athletes went public with mental health concerns. It might be useful to see how journalists covered each athlete to determine if the narrative and tone changed after mental health issues were made public. In addition, comparing the stories of men and women athletes would offer better understanding how and the extent to which media coverage differs by gender and whether the double standard is applied to women, as the literature suggest .
While we did not provide a gender-based comparison of the portrayals of athletes’ mental health narratives, we did allude to several male athletes or cited sources that did. Such references underscore the prevailing expectation for athletes to persevere through adversities and injuries. These observations could serve as a precursor for future studies that delve into a comparative analysis.
Conclusion
Social identity as a lens to understand the way professional women athletes find support, or not, among different groups of people proved to be a useful perspective in looking at the larger narrative about professional women athletes, mental health, and the role of media in shaping these narratives. While we do not offer systematic evidence here that male athletes share this experience, we emphasized that high-profile athletes like Michael Phelps opened the door, per se, for other athletes to be more vocal about the challenges they faced. As Biles said during one interview, “perfection is expected, but we just can’t always be perfect.” This statement suggests that athletes do see themselves through the lens and identity of an athlete first and at times, that’s the only identity that can be acceptable. As the athletes told their respective stories, they received feedback, often positive but not unconditionally, about their personal experiences with mental health. This feedback could have been perceived as social support from respective in and out groups.
What is known is that maintaining that performance level requires significant physical and mental “toughness.” By sharing their struggles with mental health, those athletes have also helped destigmatize the issue and encouraged others to prioritize their well-being. Their willingness to share their struggles and vulnerability can inspire other athletes to seek help, prioritize their mental health, and seek a holistic approach to well-being. Moreover, the accompanying recognition and acknowledgment of athletes’ mental health concerns may have positive ripple effects beyond sports. Athletes, as celebrities and role models, influence society’s perception and understanding of mental health. By sharing their personal struggles and experiences, they help break down the stigma surrounding mental health and encourage individuals from all walks of life to prioritize their well-being.
In the realm of sports, it is imperative for teams, governing bodies, and sports organizations to recognize and proactively address the mental health needs of athletes. By offering essential support, resources, and guidance, they can help athletes navigate the distinct challenges inherent to their profession. As the narrative continues to evolve, it’s imperative for both the media and society at large to recognize and respect the multifaceted identities of athletes, understanding that they, too, are humans with vulnerabilities. This shift in perspective not only fosters a more supportive environment but also paves the way for more comprehensive research on the intertwined relationship between athletic identity, mental health, and societal expectations. By promoting a holistic approach to well-being, society can create an environment where high-level competition can coexist with mental health support, allowing athletes to thrive both on and off the field.
Footnotes
Appendix A
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.