Achievement Goals,Imposter Syndrome,and Psychological Distress Among Female STEM Students: A Structural Equation Model

Abstract

Psychological distress can influence a student's decision-making process regarding whether to persist in their academic journey. This study examined the influence of achievement goals and imposter syndrome on female STEM college students’ psychological distress. It involved 395 participants, with 37.72% identifying as minoritized and 44.05% as first-generation students, who completed an online survey. Findings of structural equation modeling indicated that higher imposter syndrome levels mediated the link between performance-avoidance and mastery-avoidance goals and psychological distress. Conversely, emphasizing mastery-approach goals was linked to lower imposter syndrome levels, reducing psychological distress. Multigroup analyses revealed these effects were consistent across different student groups, regardless of their minoritized status. But these effects are different between first-generation and continuing-generation college students. This suggests that educational institutions can implement strategies to support the mental wellbeing and retention of female STEM students.

Keywords

achievement goal orientations imposter syndrome psychological distress female college students STEM

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

American College Health Association (2021). American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment III (ACHA-NCHA III): Reference group executive summary Spring 2021. https://www.acha.org/documents/ncha/NCHA-III_SPRING-2021_REFERENCE_GROUP_EXECUTIVE_SUMMARY_updated.pdf .

Barthelemy

R. S.

McCormick

Henderson

(2016). Gender discrimination in physics and astronomy: Graduate student experiences of sexism and gender microaggressions. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 12(2), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.12.020119

Bernard

Neblett

(2018). A culturally informed model of the development of the imposter phenomenon among African American youth. Adolescent Research Review, 3(4), 279–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-017-0073-0

Bernard

D. L.

Lige

Q. M.

Willis

H. A.

Sosoo

E. E.

Neblett

E. W.

(2017). Impostor phenomenon and mental health: The influence of racial discrimination and gender. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(2), 155–166. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000197

Blondeau

L. A.

Awad

G. H.

(2018). The relation of the imposter phenomenon to future intentions of mathematics-related school and work. Journal of Career Development, 45(3), 253–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845316680769

Canning

LaCosse

Kroeper

K. M.

Murphy

M. C.

(2020). Feeling like an imposter: The effect of perceived classroom competition on the daily psychological experiences of first-generation college students. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 11(5), 647–657. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550619882032

Casad

B. J.

Franks

J. E.

Garasky

C. E.

Kittleman

M. M.

Roesler

A. C.

Hall

D. Y.

Petzel

Z. W.

(2021). Gender inequality in academia: Problems and solutions for women faculty in STEM. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 99(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/jnr.24631

Chalabaev

Major

Sarrazin

Cury

(2012). When avoiding failure improves performance: Stereotype threat and the impact of performance goals. Motivation and Emotion, 36, 130–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-011-9241-x

Chang

M. J.

Sharkness

Hurtado

Newman

C. B.

(2014). What matters in college for retaining aspiring scientists and engineers from underrepresented racial groups? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51(5), 555–677. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21146

10.

Chapman

(2017). Using the assessment process to overcome imposter syndrome in mature students. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 41(2), 112–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2015.1062851

11.

Charleston

L. J.

George

P. L.

Jackson

J. F. L.

Berhanu

Amechi

M. H.

(2014). Navigating underrepresented STEM spaces: Experiences of Black women in U.S. computing science higher education programs who actualize success. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 7(3), 166–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036632

12.

Chelberg

K. L.

Bosman

L. B.

(2019). The role of faculty mentoring in improving retention and completion rates for historically underrepresented STEM students. International Journal of Higher Education, 8(2), 39–48. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v8n2p39

13.

Cheung

G. W.

Rensvold

R. B.

(2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5

14.

Cheung

(2018). Understanding imposter phenomenon in graduate students using achievement goal theory (Publication No. 10824833) [Doctoral dissertation, Fordham University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

15.

Clance

P. R.

(1985). The impostor phenomenon: Overcoming the fear that haunts your success. Peachtree.

16.

Clance

P. R.

Imes

S. A.

(1978). The imposter phenomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic intervention. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 15(3), 241–247. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0086006

17.

Clark

S. L.

Dyar

Inman

E. M.

Maung

London

(2021). Women’s career confidence in a fixed, sexist STEM environment. International Journal of STEM Education, 8(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-021-00313-z

18.

Collins

K. H.

(2018). Confronting color-blind STEM talent development: Toward a contextual model for Black student STEM identity. Journal of Advanced Academics, 29(2), 143–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X18757958

19.

Covington

M. V.

Müeller

K. J.

(2001). Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation: An approach/avoidance reformulation. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 157–176. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009009219144

20.

Darnon

Jury

Aelenei

(2018). Who benefits from mastery-approach and performance-approach goals in college? Students’ social class as a moderator of the link between goals and grade. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 33, 713–726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-017-0351-z

21.

Daumiller

Rinas

Breithecker

(2022). Elite athletes’ achievement goals, burnout levels, psychosomatic stress symptoms, and coping strategies. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20(2), 416–435. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2021.1877326

22.

Derogatis

L. R.

(2001). Brief symptoms inventory 18: Administration, scoring, and procedures manual. NCS Pearson.

23.

Drapeau

Marchand

Beaulieu-Prevost

(2012). Epidemiology of psychological distress. In LAbate (Ed.), Mental illnesses-understanding, prediction and control (Vol. 69, pp. 105–106). InTech.

24.

Dweck

C. S.

(1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040–1048. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1040

25.

Elliot

A. J.

(1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. Educational Psychologist, 34(3), 169–189. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3403_3

26.

Elliot

A. J.

Dweck

C. S.

(2013). Handbook of competence and motivation. Guilford Publications.

27.

Elliot

A. J.

McGregor

H. A.

(2001). A 2× 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(3), 501–509. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.501

28.

Elliot

A. J.

Thrash

T. M.

(2002). Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance temperaments and goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(5), 804–818. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.5.804

29.

Elliot

A. J.

Thrash

T. M.

(2004). The intergenerational transmission of fear of failure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(8), 957–971. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203262024

30.

Emerson

D. J.

Hair

J. F.

Smith

K. J.

(2023). Psychological distress, burnout, and business student turnover: The role of resilience as a coping mechanism. Research in Higher Education, 64(2), 228–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-022-09704-9

31.

Erekson

D. M.

Larsen

R. A.

Clayton

C. K.

Hamm

Hoskin

J. M.

Morrison

Vogeler

H. A.

Merrill

B. M.

Griner

Beecher

M. E.

(2022). Is the measure good enough? Measurement invariance and validity of the clance imposter phenomenon scale in a university population. Psychological Reports, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941221139991

32.

Ertl

Luttenberger

Paechter

(2017). The impact of gender stereotypes on the self-concept of female students in STEM subjects with an under-representation of females. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, article 703. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00703

33.

Finney

S. J.

Pieper

S. L.

Barron

K. E.

(2004). Examining the psychometric properties of the achievement goal questionnaire in a general academic context. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64(2), 365–382. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164403258465

34.

Harackiewicz

J. M.

Barron

K. E.

Tauer

J. M.

Carter

S. M.

Elliot

A. J.

(2000). Short-term and long-term consequences of achievement goals: Predicting interest and performance over time. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(2), 316–330. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.92.2.316

35.

Horn

Carroll

C. D.

(1998). Stopouts or stayouts. Undergraduates who leave college in their first year. National Center for Education Statistics.

36.

Hoyert

M. S.

O’dell

C. D.

Hendrickson

K. A.

(2012). Using goal orientation to enhance college retention and graduation rates. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 11(2), 171–179. https://doi.org/10.2304/plat.2012.11.2.171

37.

L. T.

Bentler

P. M.

(1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118

38.

Huang

(2016). Achievement goals and self-efficacy: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 19, 119–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.07.002

39.

Inman

W. E.

Mayes

(1999). The importance of being first: Unique characteristics of first-generation community college students. Community College Review, 26(4), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/009155219902600402

40.

Ivie

White

Chu

R. Y.

(2016). Women’s and men’s career choices in astronomy and astrophysics. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 12(2), 020109. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.12.020109

41.

Iwata

Buka

(2002). Race/ethnicity and depressive symptoms: A cross-cultural/ethnic comparison among university students in East Asia, North and South America. Social Science & Medicine, 55(12), 2243–2252. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00003-5

42.

Jagacinski

C. M.

(2013). Women engineering students: Competence perceptions and achievement goals in the freshman engineering course. Sex Roles, 69(11-12), 644–657. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0325-9

43.

Jean

V. A.

Payne

S. C.

Thompson

R. J.

(2015). Women in STEM: Family-related challenges and initiatives. In Mills

(Ed.), Gender and the work-family experience (pp. 291–311). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08891-4_15

44.

Joseph

N. M.

Hailu

Boston

(2017). Black women’s and girls’ persistence in the P–20 mathematics pipeline: Two decades of children, youth, and adult education research. Review of Research in Education, 41(1), 203–227. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X16689045

45.

Jury

Smeding

Darnon

(2015). First-generation students’ underperformance at university: The impact of the function of selection. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 710–721. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00710

46.

Keith

T. Z.

(2019). Multiple regression and beyond: An introduction to multiple regression and structural equation modeling. Routledge.

47.

Kitzrow

M. A.

(2003). The mental health needs of today’s college students: Challenges and recommendations. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 41(1), 167–181. https://doi.org/10.2202/1949-6605.1310

48.

Kumar

Jagacinski

C. M.

(2006). Imposters have goals too: The imposter phenomenon and its relationship to achievement goal theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(1), 147–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.05.014

49.

Laiduc

Herrmann

Covarrubias

(2021). Relatable role models: An online intervention highlighting first-generation faculty benefits first-generation students. Journal of First-Generation Student Success, 1(3), 159–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/26906015.2021.1983402

50.

Landers

K. H.

(2018). Postsecondary education for first-generation and low-income students in the Ivy League: Navigating policy and practice. Palgrave Macmillan.

51.

Lechner

W. V.

Laurene

K. R.

Patel

Anderson

Grega

Kenne

D. R.

(2020). Changes in alcohol use as a function of psychological distress and social support following COVID-19 related university closings. Addictive Behaviors, 110, Article 106527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106527

52.

Mak

K. K.

Kleitman

Abbott

M. J.

(2019). Impostor phenomenon measurement scales: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 671. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00671

53.

Marsh

H. W.

Hau

K. T.

Wen

(2004). In search of golden rules: Comment on hypothesis-testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and dangers in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler’s (1999) findings. Structural Equation Modeling, 11(3), 320–341. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1103_2

54.

Martinez

J. A.

Sher

K. J.

Krull

J. L.

Wood

P. K.

(2009). Blue-collar scholars? Mediators and moderators of university attrition in first-generation college students. Journal of College Student Development, 50(1), 87–103. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.0.0053

55.

McGinty

E. E.

Presskreischer

Anderson

K. E.

Han

Barry

C. L.

(2020). Psychological distress and COVID-19–related stressors reported in a longitudinal cohort of US adults in April and July 2020. JAMA, 324(24), 2555–2557. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.21231

56.

Mcgregor

Gee

Posey

K. E.

(2008). I feel like a fraud and it depresses me: The relationship between the imposter phenomenon and depression. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 36(1), 43–48. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2008.36.1.43

57.

Moss-Racusin

C. A.

Pietri

E. S.

Hennes

E. P.

Dovidio

J. F.

Brescoll

V. L.

Roussos

Handelsman

(2018). Reducing STEM gender bias with VIDS (video interventions for diversity in STEM). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 24(2), 236–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000144

58.

Mullangi

Jagsi

(2019). Imposter syndrome: treat the cause, not the symptom. JAMA, 322(5), 403–404. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.9788

59.

National Science Board (2019). Higher education in science and engineering. https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20197/demographic-attributes-of-s-e-degree-recipients.

60.

National Science Board (2021). The STEM Labor Force of Today: Scientists, Engineers and Skilled Technical Workers. https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20212 .

61.

Nicholls

J. G.

(1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91(3), 328–346. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.328

62.

Noel

J. K.

Lakhan

H. A.

Sammartino

C. J.

Rosenthal

S. R.

(2021). Depressive and anxiety symptoms in first generation college students. Journal of American College Health, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1950727

63.

Olmstead

S. B.

Roberson

P. N.

Fincham

F. D.

(2016). Early psychological distress is a precursor to college men’s later academic and social adjustment. College Student Journal, 50(1), 53–58.

64.

Pekrun

Elliot

A. J.

Maier

M. A.

(2006). Achievement goals and discrete achievement emotions: A theoretical model and prospective test. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 583–597. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.3.583

65.

Perry

J. L.

Nicholls

A. R.

Clough

P. J.

Crust

(2015). Assessing model fit: Caveats and recommendations for confirmatory factor analysis and exploratory structural equation modeling. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 19(1), 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/1091367X.2014.952370

66.

Peteet

B. J.

Montgomery

Weekes

J. C.

(2015). Predictors of imposter phenomenon among talented ethnic minority undergraduate students. The Journal of Negro Education, 84(2), 175–186. https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.84.2.0175

67.

Rainey

Dancy

Mickelson

Stearns

Moller

(2018). Race and gender differences in how sense of belonging influences decisions to major in STEM. International Journal of STEM Education, 5, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-018-0115-6

68.

Ramsey

Brown

(2018). Feeling like a fraud: Helping students renegotiate their academic identities. College & Undergraduate Libraries, 25(1), 86–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/10691316.2017.1364080

69.

Riegle-Crumb

King

Irizarry

(2019). Does STEM stand out? Examining racial/ethnic gaps in persistence across postsecondary fields. Educational Researcher, 48(3), 133–144. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X19831006

70.

Rosenthal

Schlussel

Yaden

M. B.

DeSantis

Trayes

Pohl

Hojat

(2021). Persistent imposter phenomenon is associated with distress in medical students. Family Medicine, 53(2), 118–122. https://doi.org/10.22454/FamMed.2021.799997

71.

Shapiro

J. R.

Williams

A. M.

(2012). The role of stereotype threats in undermining girls’ and women’s performance and interest in STEM fields. Sex Roles, 66(3-4), 175–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/hea.12061_11

72.

Sideridis

G. D.

(2005). Goal orientation, academic achievement, and depression: Evidence in favor of a revised goal theory framework. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(3), 366–375. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.3.366

73.

Stan

Oprea

(2015). Test anxiety and achievement goal orientations of students at a Romanian university. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 180(5), 1673–1679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.05.066

74.

Tao

K. W.

Gloria

A. M.

(2019). Should I stay or should I go? The role of impostorism in STEM persistence. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(2), 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/036168431880

75.

Thompson

M. N.

Her

Fetter

A. K.

Perez-Chavez

(2019). College student psychological distress: Relationship to self-esteem and career decision self-efficacy beliefs. The Career Development Quarterly, 67(4), 282–297. https://doi.org/10.1002/cdq.12199

76.

Tuominen-Soini

(2012). Student motivation and well-being: Achievement goal orientation profiles, temporal stability, and academic and socio-emotional outcomes [Doctoral dissertation, University of Helsinki]. https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/37422/studentm.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

77.

Tuominen-Soini

Salmela-Aro

Niemivirta

(2008). Achievement goal orientations and subjective well-being: A person-centred analysis. Learning and Instruction, 18(3), 251–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.05.003

78.

U.S. Department of Homeland Security (2022). DHS STEM designated degree program list. https://www.ice.gov/doclib/sevis/pdf/stemList2022.pdf .

79.

Vandenberg

R. J.

Lance

C. E.

(2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810031002

80.

Vrieze

S. I.

(2012). Model selection and psychological theory: A discussion of the differences between the Akaike information criterion (AIC) and the Bayesian information criterion (BIC). Psychological Methods, 17(2), 228–243. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027127

81.

Yang

Gentry

M. L.

(2023). Striving to excel in STEM: Insights from underrepresented, minoritized graduate students with high academic ability. Gifted Child Quarterly, 67(2), 110–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/00169862221119

82.

Yost

Winstead

Cotten

S. R.

Handley

D. M.

(2013). The recruitment and retention of emerging women scholars in STEM: Results from a national web-based survey of graduate students, postdoctoral fellows, and junior faculty. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 19(2), 143–163. https://doi.org/10.1615/JWomenMinorScienEng.2013003021

83.

Young

Anderson

Stewart

(2015). Hierarchical microaggressions in higher education. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 8(1), 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038464

84.

Zhang

Feng

(2018). Prevalence of psychological distress and the effects of resilience and perceived social support among Chinese college students: Does gender make a difference? Psychiatry Research, 267, 409–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.06.038