Phrenology - Confrontation between Spurzheim and Gordon - 1816

These letters are part of a larger collection of about 70 letters spanning the period between 1814 and 1829, which had been purchased at auction more than 20 years ago by the then Curator of Rare Books and Manuscripts, Richard J. Wolfe, and are now located in the Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine, Boston Medical Library. Those covering the period between 1814–17 are all in English, while the later examples are either in French or German. In 1813, Spurzheim spent six months studying the English language, preparatory to his trip to England during the following year: he arrived in London in March 1814. While Spurzheim's first language was German, and Mme Pothier's was French, it was mutually decided that they should correspond in English, in order to improve Spurzheim's command of that language.

Struthers J . Alexander Monro Tertius. In: Historical sketch of the Edinburgh anatomical school Edinburgh: Maclachlan & Stewart, 1867; 34–7.

Wright-St Clair RE . Doctors Monro: a medical saga London: Wellcome Historical Medical Library, 1964;96–117.

Ballingall G . The life of Dr Barclay Edinburgh: Maclachlan & Stewart, 1827.

Struthers J . Barclay. In: Historical sketch of the Edinburgh anatomical school Edinburgh: Maclachlan & Stewart, 1867; 56–70.

Ellis D . Memoir of the life and writings of John Gordon, M.D., F.R.S.E., late Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology in Edinburgh Edinburgh: A. Constable & Company; London: Hurst, Robinson & Company, 1823. (See pp. 37–99 for summary of Gordon's critical analysis of the published work of Gall and Spurzheim. The principal information that emerges from this account is that Gordon in his monograph was meticulous in drawing attention to the fact that all of the findings of these authors had previously been made by others. More particularly, that even their approach to the dissecting of the brain, thought by many to be original, had, in fact, been described by others. Soon after his [i.e. Spurzheim's] arrival [in Edinburgh] he expressed to Dr Thomson a wish to exhibit a demonstration of the brain, and was soon furnished with the opportunity, and accommodated with the use of Dr Thomson's theatre for the purpose, where he gave two demonstrations of that organ. Dr Gordon, with a great number of persons, both professional and others, were present. The dissection was made with considerable dexterity; and the order pursued in it was so different from that usually followed in this country, that it excited much interest, and impressed many with the belief of great discovery in the anatomy of that organ.

Struthers J . Gordon. In: Historical sketch of the Edinburgh anatomical school Edinburgh: Maclachlan & Stewart, 1867; 70–3.

Combe G . Explanation of the physiognomical system of Drs Gall and Spurzheim. The Scots Magazine and Edinburgh Literary Miscellany: being a General Repository of Literature, History and Politics 1817; 79: 243–50 (article unsigned).

Gibbon C . The life of George Combe, author of ‘The Constitution of Man’. 2 Volumes Volume 1, pp. 335; Volume 2, pp. 404.London:Macmillan & Company, 1878.

According to Gibbon (1878, Volume 1, pp. 94–6), Combe did not bother to attend Spurzheim's first course of lectures on phrenology in Edinburgh, but was later invited by a barrister friend to attend a private lecture-demonstration in his home. With the Edinburgh Review article on the table in front of him, he then proceeded to dissect a brain. All the company, but particularly Combe, were impressed. He decided that it was imperative that he purchase from London a large collection of casts illustrative of the different organs. During 1817, he initiated an active correspondence with Spurzheim, who was then resident in London, and Combe even sent him the ‘proofs’ of the article that was shortly to appear in the April number of the Scots Magazine (Combe, 1817). Due, however, to the vagaries of the postal service, the article was published before he received Spurzheim's detailed comments on the document. While Spurzheim was invited to Edinburgh later in 1817 to defend phrenology once more against Gordon's, this time less personal but more substantial, criticisms of his and Gall's work (see Gordon, 1817), his lecturing and clinical commitments in London precluded his travelling to Edinburgh. Accordingly, he indicated that George Combe was now sufficiently familiar with the subject that he was well able to speak on his behalf should this be considered necessary (Gibbon, 1878, Volume 1, p. 99).

Gordon J . The doctrines of Gall and Spurzheim. Art. X. Anatomie et physiologie du système nerveux en général, et du cerveau en particulier, avec des observations sur la possibilité de reconnaître plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de l'homme et des animaux, par la configuration de leurs têtes. Par F.J. Gall & G. Spurzheim. Premier vol. 4o. pp. 352. avec dix-sept planches fol. Paris. 1810. Deux vol. prem. part. pp. 212. avec quinze planches fol. Paris, 1812. The Physiognomical System of Drs Gall and Spurzheim, &. Illustrated with nineteen copper-plates. 2d edit. 8 vo. pp. 581. London, 1815. Edinburgh Review 1815a; 25: 227–68 [unsigned]. The full references to these volumes is as follows: Gall FJ, Spurzheim G. Anatomie et physiologie du système nerveux en général, et du cerveau en particulier, avec des observations sur la possibilité de reconnaître plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de l'homme et des animaux, par la configuration de leurs têtes. Volume 1, pp. 352; Atlas (no page numbers) Paris: F. Schoell, 1810. Gall FJ, Spurzheim G. Anatomie et physiologie du système nerveux en général, et du cerveau en particulier, avec des observations sur la possibilité de reconnaître plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de l'homme et des animaux, par la configuration de leurs têtes. Volume 2, pp. 212. Paris: F. Schoell, 1812.

Spurzheim JG . Observations on the deranged manifestations of the mind or insanity London: Baldwin, Cradock & Joy, 1817a.

Apart from Gordon, we have no knowledge of the identity of his second adversary, as no mention is made of this individual in any of the other letters, nor in any of the biographies of Spurzheim.

It is possible that this was Spurzheim's first public lecture demonstration in Edinburgh (see notes 15 and 16, below; see also note 6 where it is suggested that Spurzheim's first lecture demonstration in Edinburgh was given in Dr Thomson's lecture theatre).

It is possible that this refers to Spurzheim's second public lecture-demonstration, and was given before the Physical Society during the early part of July 1816. Unfortunately, the Minutes of this meeting have yet to be located.

Spurzheim JG . Examination of the objections made in Britain against the doctrines of Gall and Spurzheim Edinburgh: Baldwin, Cradock & Joy; London: Underwood, 1817b, 87pp. For reference to these two early lecture-demonstrations, see the Introduction section (pp. 2–3), where the author states: ‘As the reader may wish to know who my auditors were, I will mention the names of some gentlemen. At the first demonstration were present, Dr John Thomson, Prof. Regius of Military Surgery; Dr Barclay, Lecturer on Anatomy and Surgery; Dr Duncan, junior, Prof. of Medical Jurisprudence; Drs Emery and Irvin, of the Military Staff. At the second, were Dr Rutherford, Prof. of Botany; Dr Home, Prof. of Materia Medica; Dr Thomas Brown, Prof. of Moral Philosophy; Prof. Jamieson; Drs Farquharson, Dewar, Sanders, Anderson, and a great number of professional gentlemen. At the Physical Society I gave the demonstration in presence of Dr. Monro, junior [i.e. Alexander Monro, tertius], Prof. of Anatomy and Surgery; Drs Rutherford, Barclay, and Sanders; Mr Bryce, President of the College of Surgeons; Mr George Bell, and a numerous audience of medical gentlemen. Since that time, I have often repeated these demonstrations in private parties, always to the satisfaction.’ This information would seem to suggest that Barclay and many others attended both of these lecture demonstrations.

Gordon lectured at Number 9 Surgeons’ Square from 1808 until his death in1818.

There were said to be over 500 in the audience during this five hour session when Spurzheim demonstrated the fibrous structure of the brain (See note 27–Spurzheim, 1833, p. 50). There is no indication in the text as to exactly where this demonstration took place.

Reference to the Senatus Minutes covering this period confirmed that the medical graduation took place on Thursday 1 August 1816. Those present at the graduation were listed as follows: Revd. Dr Baird, Principal; Drs Gregory (Dr James Gregory, former Professor, Institutes of Medicine, 1776–1789), Rutherford (Dr Daniel Rutherford, Professor of Botany, 1786 1819), Duncan Senior (Andrew Duncan, Senior, or primus), Professor, Institutes of Medicine, 1790–1819), Hope (Dr Charles Hope, Professor of Chemistry, 1795–1844), Home (Dr James Home, Professor of Materia Medica, 1798–1821), Monro junior (Professor of Anatomy and Surgery, 1798–1846), - Professors & Dr Duncan, Junior (Dr Andrew Duncan, junior, or secundus, Professor, Institutes of Medicine, 1819–1821, Professor of Materia Medica, 1821–1832). The Minutes continue: 76 candidates for the degree of Dr. of Medicine.who had previously undergone their private Trials with the approbation of the Medical Faculty, were now Examined publicly by the Professors of Medicine on their presented Ina[u]gural Dissertations, and being found duly qualified, they received the said Degree with the usual solemnities, the following being their names with the titles of their Dissertations [in Latin]: In the Edinburgh Evening Courant of Saturday 3 August 1816, the list of individuals who received the Degree of Doctor of Medicine is given, with the titles of the Dissertations as in the Senatus Minutes. Additional information on the country of origin of the graduands was also provided, as follows: Scotland: 37; England: 13; Wales: 2; Ireland: 16; Jersey: 1; Bombay: 1; Barbadoes: 3; St Kitts: 1; Maryland: 1; Carolina: 1. No mention is made, however, of Spurzheim's invitation to join the members of the Medical Faculty during the graduation ceremonial.

Gordon J . A system of human anatomy. Volume 1 Edinburgh: William Blackwood, John Anderson & Company and T. Cadell and W. Davies; London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, & Brown, 1815b. (see Book I, Chapter III, Section I. The brain (pp. 78–174); The spinal cord (174–191); Section II. Of the nerves in general (pp. 193–218).

This must refer to Spurzheim (1817b), which was presumably written in November/December 1816, published during the following year, and indeed contains 87 pages of text.

The Edinburgh Star of 20 December 1816 was issue number 863. The letter referred to by Spurzheim is of substantial length, running to almost 2,000 words, is signed ‘Veridicus', and dated December 16, 1816. It purports to have been written by someone who attended Spurzheim's first two lecture-demonstrations held in the presence of large audiences including Dr Gordon. He indicates that Gordon's behaviour on these occasions was reprehensible, and that despite the assertions of Gordon's supporters, ‘.attempts have been made to misrepresent the feelings and judgement of the audience, which were unquestionably in favour of Dr Spurzheim, in the proportion of at least twenty to one.’ The author felt that it was essential that the unbiased facts be stated ‘because of his innate love of justice'.

In present day terms, this is equivalent to about &pond;3,270; information supplied by Bank of England (July 1998). The nearest current equivalent to this qualification is the United Examining Board's triple qualification (LMSSA, LRCP, MRCS), the fee for which is presently &pond;750.

Spurzheim JG . Outlines of the physiognomical system of Drs Gall and Spurzheim: indicating the dispositions and manifestations of the mind London: Baldwin, Cradock & Joy, (1815). (This refers to the second edition of this book).

Anon. Article III. Death of Dr Spurzheim. Phrenological Journal and Miscellany 1834; 8:126–43. (see p. 135).

Anon (1834). see p.137.

Spurzheim JG . Phrenology in connexion with the study of physiognomy: to which is prefixed a biography of the author by Nahum Capen. First American Edition, improved. Boston: Marsh, Capen & Lyon, 1833. (The biographical section runs to 168 pages, but also includes a lengthy biographical section on Dr Gall.)

Spurzheim (1833). See p. 35. In reply to Gordon's criticism of their claim for priority of description of certain anatomical findings, Spurzheim argues: Cuvier, however, was too well acquainted with the German and European literature, to accuse us of plagiarism. He allowed that our method of dissecting the brain is preferable to that commonly used in the schools; - that we are the first who have shewn the swellings in the spinal cord in a calf; - the proportion between the brown and white substance of the brain; - the true origin of the optic and other nerves: - the certainty of the decussation; - the successive reinforcement through the pons, crura, optic thalami, the corpora striata; - the two sorts of fibres in the brain, and the generality of the commissures. As the report is printed, even translated and inserted in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal for January 1809, the reader, in perusing the report, may satisfy himself. I ask the historian, why he has omitted to tell his readers, that Cuvier, in the Annual Report, published, that our Memoir was by far the most important which had occupied the attention of the class?

Spurzheim (1833). See p. 44. It is said that Dr Abernethy, after observing Dr Spurzheim dissect a brain at the Medico Chirurgical Society in London and after attending his course of lectures ‘fully acknowledged the superiority of Dr Spurzheim's anatomical demonstrations over every previous mode of dissecting the brain', and that he ‘directed the attention of his class to Dr Spurzheim's anatomical labors, as most important discoveries'.

Gordon J . Observations on the structure of the brain, comprising an estimate of the Claims of Drs Gall and Spurzheim to discovery in the anatomy of that organ. Edinburgh: W. Blackwood; London: T. & G. Underwood, 1817.

While it might reasonably be expected that this monograph published in 1817 (see note 24) would be an extended and more detailed version of his anonymous review published in the Edinburgh Review (see note 5), this is not in fact the case. The monograph is principally a critical analysis of an article written by Gall and Spurzheim entitled ‘Anatomie du Cerveau’ (see Appendix to Gordon (1817, pp. 185–207) ‘Being the Article ‘'Anatomie du Cerveau,'’ written by Drs. Gall and Spurzheim, for the Dictionaire des Sciences Médicales, Vol. IV. Paris, 1813.', the full text of which was published [in French].

Comrie JD . History of Scottish medicine. 2nd editionVolume 1, pp. 396; Volume 2, pp. 411–828. London: Baillière, Tindall & Cox, 1932. (According to Comrie (1932, see Volume 2, p. 498): ‘This attempt to show that the claims of these two men to have localised various faculties in different parts of the brain were inadmissable, went far, in this country, at least, to discredit the science of phrenology').

Barclay J . An enquiry into the opinions ancient and modern, concerning life and organization. Edinburgh: Bell & Bradfute, 1822. (See particularly pp. 372–81).

Combe A . XII. Observations on Dr. Barclay's objections to phrenology. Transactions of the Edinburgh Phrenological Society 1824a; 1: 393–429. (Material contained in Barclay's Life and Organization. While Combe clearly differed in opinion with Barclay on the anatomical basis of phrenology, the phrenologists nevertheless held Barclay in particularly high regard. According to Combe: ‘One acknowledgement the phrenologists owe to Dr Barclay, and I sincerely pay it. He has displayed a truly manly and independent spirit, in fairly commiting to the press his objections, and publishing them with his name; instead of resorting to anonymous abuse, which he would be ashamed to acknowledge, as has been the practice of many of our opponents. His objections have been publicly offered to us for consideration, or refutation; and he fairly trusts to the merits of his arguments for their success, and invites his reader to decide according to the preponderance of reason and of fact. Such conduct towards phrenology is as rare as it is honourable).'

Combe G . Article III. Correspondence betwixt Mr George Combe and Dr Barclay. Phrenological Journal and Miscellany 1824c; 1: 46–55. (Refers to Barclay's references to Gall and Spurzheim in his lectures on comparative anatomy. It is relevant to quote from the lecture notes taken by Mr John Cox (nephew of George Combe) who attended Dr Barclay's course of lectures on comparative anatomy. He noted that Barclay stated as follows: ‘We are certainly much indebted to Dr Spurzheim for the reviving of discoveries which were forgotten, and as he has revived ancient discoveries he has also made one or two new and useful ones. This gentlemen, however, has been much abused by the Edinburgh Review, which states him to be a quack; but he is far from being a quack intentionally as any gentleman alive, and is an intelligent and learned man. When he was in this country I respected him as a man, and as a man of candour, though I could not agree with his conclusions. I asked the doctor if my ideas on the anatomy of the brain coincided with his, when he told me that they did so precisely. But when he spoke of the physiology of the brain he and I differed. Both of us had the same facts, upon which we agreed, but we drew different conclusions from them. He said, however, that we would not quarrel upon the subject, and so Dr Spurzheim still remains one of my best friends').

Kaufman MH . The Edinburgh phrenological debate of 1823 held in the Royal Medical Society. Journal of Neurolinguistics 1998; 11:377–89.

Anon. Article XV. Phrenology and the Medical Society. The Phrenological Journal and Miscellany 1824; 1:307–16 (see pp. 308–309).

Monro A . (tertius). The anatomy of the brain, with some observations on its functions To which is prefixed an account of experiments on the weight and relative proportions of the brain, cerebellum, and tuber annulare, in man and animals, under the various circumstances of age, sex, country, &. by Sir William Hamilton, Bart Edinburgh: John Carfrae & Son; London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green, 1831.

Browne J . Charles Darwin. Voyaging. Volume 1 of a biography London: Pimlico, 1995;60.

Combe G . Article III. Controversy with Sir William Hamilton. Phrenological Journal and Miscellany 1827; 4:377–407.

Anon. Article I. Sir William Hamilton, Bart., and Phrenology. I. Correspondence published in the Caledonian Mercury between Sir William Hamilton and Dr Spurzheim, and between Sir William Hamilton and Mr George Combe. Phrenological Journal and Miscellany 1829; 5:1–69.

Combe G . Article IX. Renewed correspondence between Sir William Hamilton, Bart., and Mr George Combe. Phrenological Journal and Miscellany 1829; 5:153–8.

Hamilton W . Researches on the frontal sinuses, with observations on their bearings on the dogmas of phrenology. Medical Times 1845; 12:159, 177, 371.

Cooter R . Phrenology in the British Isles: an annotated, historical biobibliography and index Metuchen, N.J.: The Scarecrow Press, Inc, 1989.

Bell C . XXI. Second part of the paper on the nerves of the orbit. By C. Bell Esq. Communicated by Sir Humphry Davy, Bart. Pres. R.S. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1823; 108:2, 289–307.

Bell (1823). (See pp. 306–307. According to Bell: ‘But the most extravagant departure from all the legitimate modes of reasoning, although still under the colour of anatomical investigation, is the system of Dr. Gall. It is sufficient to say, that without comprehending the grand divisions of the nervous system, without a notion of the distinct properties of the individual nerves, or having made any distinction of the columns of the spinal marrow, without even having ascertained the difference of cerebrum and cerebellum, Gall proceeded to describe the brain as composed of many particular and independent organs, and to assign to each the residence of some special faculty.

Combe A . Mr Charles Bell on the functions of the nerves. Phrenological Journal and Miscellany 1824b; 1:58–65.

Cooter R . The cultural meaning of popular science: phrenology and the organization of consent in nineteenth century Britain Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Walsh AA . Phrenology and the Boston Medical community in the 1830s. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 1976; 50:261–73.

Although John Collins Warren had first learned of Gall's organology or craniognomy (later termed phrenology) when a student in Paris in 1801–02, he never met either Gall or Spurzheim. The first book in favour of phrenology published in the United States was believed to be the American edition of Combe's Essays on Phrenology, published by Dr John Bell of Philadelphia in 1822. Warren's own small book on phrenology was published later in 1822. He was said to be Boston's ‘leading surgeon', and Spurzheim carried letters of introduction to him when he visited Boston in 1832. The term ‘phrenology’ is said to have been first used by Benjamin Rush (1745–1813), the American psychiatrist, although with a different meaning than it eventually acquired. He is also believed to have anticipated Gall's ideas on the interaction between physical and mental processes, and by his additional belief in the innateness of certain mental powers. America's first formal society devoted to the study of phrenology was formed in Philadelphia in May 1822. Despite this initial interest in the subject, by the end of the decade, the enthusiasm had largely waned. It was largely rekindled, however, with Spurzheim's lecture tour of1832.

Walsh AA . The American tour of Dr. Spurzheim. Journal of the History of Medicine 1972; 27:187–205.

There is some suggestion that Spurzheim completed his course of lectures in Boston, and that he fell ill while delivering a course of lectures in Cambridge.

Coues WP . The Spurzheim collection of phrenological casts. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 1927; 196:400–3.

Anon. Daily Evening Transcript 1832; 3:No. 686, p.2.

Capen N . Reminiscences of Dr. Spurzheim and George Combe: and a review of the Science of Phrenology, from the period of its discovery by Dr. Gall to the time of the visit of George Combe to the United States, 1838, 1840 New York: Fowler & Wells, 1881.

Spurzheim (1833). See pp.135–6.

Walsh (1972). See p.195.

Spurzheim (1833). See pp.146–147.

Shurtleff NB . Anatomical report on the skull of Dr Spurzheim; read before the Boston Phrenological Society. Phrenological Journal and Miscellany 1837; 10: 39–45. (See p. 40).

Gibbon (1878). See Volume 1, pp.277–8.

Kaufman MH, Basden N. Items relating to Dr. Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (1776–1832) in the Henderson Trust Collection, formerly the museum collection of the Phrenological Society of Edinburgh: with an abbreviated iconography. Journal of Neurolinguistics 1996; 9:301–25.

Anon. A catalogue of phrenological specimens, belonging to the Boston Phrenological Society. Boston: J. Ford, 1835.

Warren JC . The collection of the Boston Phrenological Society - a retrospect. Annals of Medical History 1921; 3:1–11.

Follen C . Article III. Funeral oration: delivered before the citizens of Boston assembled at the Old South Church, November 17, 1832, at the burial of Gaspar Spurzheim, M.D. Phrenological Journal and Miscellany 1834; 8:317–31. (See p. 319).

Carmichael A . A memoir of the life and philosophy of Spurzheim Dublin: WF Wakeman, 1833. (See p. 27).

Gray J . History of the Royal Medical Society 1737–1937 Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1952. (See p. 90).