Findings from an international research programme on police stops in Bulgaria, Hungary and Spain are reviewed in the context of British and US debates on racism in police stops, and in particular the concepts of ethnic/racial profiling, disproportionality and institutional racism. The research uses surveys and qualitative interviews to examine the experiences of Roma in all three countries and of immigrants in Spain. The article finds evidence of ethnic/racial profiling in police decisions to stop. However, this does not translate into aggregate ethnic disparities in stops (disproportionality) in Bulgaria and Hungary where it can be measured. This is because ethnic disparities are driven also by structural factors that are independent of ethnic profiling. Different kinds of institutional racism are also suggested by the poorer treatment of ethnic minority populations during stops and by evidence of under-policing of Roma-only communities in Bulgaria.
The Alpert Group (2004). Miami-Dade racial profiling study. Florida: Miami-Dade County.
2.
Amnesty International (2002). Spain: Crisis of identity - torture and mistreatment for racist motives at the hands of agents of the state. Madrid: Amnesty International.
3.
Amnesty International USA (2004). Threat and humiliation: Racial profiling, domestic security and human rights in the United States. New York: Amnesty International.
4.
Bonniface, D. (2000). Stop and search. Unpublished report, University of Hertfordshire.
5.
Bowling, B. and Phillips, C. (2002). Racism, crime and justice. London: Longman.
6.
Brown, D. (1997). PACE ten years on: A review of the research. London: Home Office.
7.
Bridges, L. (2001). Race, law and the state. Race and Class43, 61-76.
8.
Bucke, T. (1997). Ethnicity and contacts with the police: Latest findings from the British Crime Survey. Research Findings No. 59. London: Home Office.
9.
Buerger, M.E. and Farrell, A. (2002). The evidence of racial profiling: Interpreting documented and unofficial sources. Police Quarterly5, 272-305.
10.
Bulgarian Helsinki Committee (2002). Bulgarias prisons. Sofia: Bulgarian Helsinki Committee.
11.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (2005). Contacts between police and the public: Findings from the 2002 survey . Washington DC: US Department of Justice.
12.
Clancy, A., Hough, M., Aust, R. and Kershaw, C. (2001). Crime policing and justice: The experience of ethnic minorities: Findings of the 2000 British Crime Survey. London: Home Office.
13.
European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (2006a). Third report on Spain: Adopted on 24 June 2005 made public on 15 February 2006. Strasbourg: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance.
14.
European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (2006b). Third report on the Russian Federation: Adopted on 16 December 2005 made public on 16 May 2006. Strasbourg : European Commission against Racism and Intolerance .
15.
European Roma RightsCenter (n.d.). ERRC concerns: Bulgaria. Budapest : European Roma Rights Center. URL (accessed 15th March 2006): http://www.errc.org/cikk.php?cikk=2252&archiv=1
16.
European Roma Rights Center (1997). Profession: Prisoner - Roma in detention in Bulgaria. Country Series Report No. 6. Budapest: European Roma Rights Center.
17.
European Roma Rights Center (2004). Always somewhere else: Anti-Gypsyism in France. Country Series Report No. 15. Budapest: European Roma Rights Center .
18.
European Roma Rights Center (2005). In search of happy Gypsies: Persecution of pariah minorities in Russia . Country Series Report No. 14. Budapest: European Roma Rights Center.
19.
Engel, R.S. and Calnon, J.M. (2004). Comparing benchmark methodologies for police-citizen contacts: Traffic stop data collection for the Pennsylvania State Police. Pennsylvania: State Police.
20.
Farkas, L. (2004). The monkey that does not see. Roma Rights Quarterly2004, 2. URL (accessed 15th March 2006): http://www.errc.org/cikk.php?cikk=1940
21.
Fekete, L. (2004). Anti-Muslim racism and the European security state . Race and Class46, 3-29.
22.
FitzGerald, M. and Sibbitt R. (1997). Ethnic monitoring in police forces: A beginning . London: Home Office.
23.
Flood-Page, C., Cambell, S., Harrington, V. and Miller, J. (2000). Youth crime: Findings from the 1998/99 Youth Lifestyles Survey. London: Home Office.
24.
Fundación Secretarido Gitano (2005). Roma population and employment: A comparative study. Madrid: Fundación Secretarido Gitano.
25.
Goldston, J.A. (2005). Towards a Europe without ethnic profiling. In Open Society Justice Initiative (ed.) Justice initiatives, June 2005: Ethnic profiling by police in Europe, 6-13 . New York: Open Society Justice Initiative.
26.
Greek Helsinki Monitor (2001). Activity report: Trial monitoring. Glyka Nera: Greek Helsinki Monitor.
27.
Hallsworth, S., McGuire, M. and Hingwan, K. (2006). Examining proportionality and disproportionality in the exercise of stop and search in the City of London Police: A report for the City of London Police. London: London Metropolitan University.
28.
Harris, D.A. (1999). Driving while black: Racial profiling on our nations highways. Washington, DC: American Civil Liberties Union.
29.
Harris, D.A. (2002). Profiles in injustice: Why racial profiling cannot work. New York: New York Press.
30.
Harris, D.A. (2005). Confronting ethnic profiling in the United States . In Open Society Justice Initiative (ed.) Justice initiatives, June 2005: Ethnic profiling by police in Europe, 66-74. New York: Open Society Justice Initiative.
31.
Home Office (2000). Statistics on race and the criminal justice system - 2000: A Home Office publication under section 95 of the Criminal Justice Act 1991. London : Home Office.
32.
Home Office (2006). Statistics on race and the criminal justice system - 2006: A Home Office publication under section 95 of the Criminal Justice Act 1991. London : Home Office.
33.
Hungarian Central Statistical Office (2006 ). Demographic data. URL (accessed 15th March 2006): http://www.nepszamlalas.hu/eng/volumes/18/tablak1.html
34.
Huszár, L. (1997). Romák, börtönök, statisztikák. Amaro Drom, August, 9-11.
35.
Jefferson, T. (1993). The racism of criminalisation: Policing and the reproduction of the criminal other. In L. Gelsthorpe (ed.) Minority ethnic groups in the criminal justice system: Papers presented to the 21st Cropwood Roundtable Conference 1992. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Institute of Criminology.
36.
Kemény, I., Janky, B. and Lengyel, G. (2006). Roma population of Hungary 1971-2003. In I. Kemény (ed.) Roma of Hungary. East European monographs, 70-225. New York: CO-Atlantic Research and Publications.
37.
Lamberth, J. (1998). Driving while black: A statistician proves that prejudice still rules the road. Washington Post, 16 August, p. C01.
38.
Lamberth, J.C. (2003). Racial profiling data analysis study: Final report for the San Antonio Police Department. Pennsylvania: Lamberth Consulting.
39.
Lange, J.E., Johnson, M.B. and Voas, R.B. (2005). Testing the racial profiling hypothesis for seemingly disparate traffic stops on the New Jersey Turnpike. Justice Quarterly22, 193-223.
40.
Macpherson, W. (1999). The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry: Report of an inquiry by Sir William Macpherson of Cluny. Cmd 4262-I. London : HMSO.
41.
Miller, J., Bland, N. and Quinton, P. (2000). Police stops and searches: Lessons from a programme of research. London: Home Office .
42.
Miller, J., Gounev, P., Pap, A.L., Wagman, D., Bernát, A., Densco, B., Pernas, B. and Simonovits, B. (2007). I can stop and search whoever I want: Police stops of ethnic minorities in Bulgaria, Hungary and Spain. New York: Open Society Justice Initiative.
43.
Ministerio del Interior (2003). Anuario estadística del Ministerio del Interior. Madrid : Ministerio del Interior.
44.
Miranda, M. and Barberet, R. (1998). Análisis de la eficacia y adecuación de la política penitenciaria a las necesidad y demandas de mujeres presas. Unpublished study, Madrid.
45.
MVA and Miller (2000). Profiling populations available for stops and searches. London: Home Office.
46.
National Statistical Institute (2004). Population and demographic processes. Sofia: NSI.
47.
Nicholas, S. and Walker, A. (2004). Crime in England and Wales 2002/2003: Supplementary volume 2 - Crime, disorder and the Criminal Justice 02/04 System - Public attitudes and perceptions. London: Home Office.
48.
Observatorio de Desigualdades de Género en la Salud (2006). Boletín sobre desigualdades de género en la salud, 8, January/March.
49.
Observatorio Permanente de Inmigración (2005 ). Algunas características de los inmigrantes en España: Colombianos, ecuatorianos y marroquíes. URL (accessed 15th March 2006): http://www.remesas.org/pmarisacarvajal.ppt#272
50.
Open Society Justice Initiative (2005). Justice initiatives, June 2005: Ethnic profiling by police in Europe . New York: Open Society Justice Initiative.
51.
Open Society Justice Initiative and Jurix ( 2006). Ethnic profiling in the Moscow Metro. New York: Open Society Justice Initiative.
52.
Pap, A.L. (2006). Ethnic discrimination and the war against terrorism: The case of Hungary. In G. Halmai (ed.) Hungary: Human rights in the face of terrorism. Lake Mary, FL: Vandeplas Publishing.
53.
Proyecto Barañí( 2001). Mujeres gitanas y sistema penal. Madrid: Metyel.
54.
Quinton, P., Bland, N. and Miller, J. (2000). Police stops, decision-making and practice. London: Home Office.
55.
Racial Profiling Data Collection Resource Center (2006). Website. URL: http://www.racialprofilinganalysis.neu.edu/
56.
Ramirez, D., McDevitt, J. and Farrell, A. (2000). A resource guide on racial profiling data collection systems: Promising practices and lessons learned. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.
57.
Ramirez, D.A., Hoopes, J. and Quinlan, T.L. (2003). Defining racial profiling in a post-September 11 world. American Criminal Law Review, Summer.
58.
Reiner, R. (1993). Race, crime and justice: Models of interpretation . In L. Gelsthorpe (ed.) Minority ethnic groups in the criminal justice system: Papers presented to the 21st Cropwood Roundtable Conference 1992, 1-23. Cambridge : University of Cambridge Institute of Criminology .
59.
Rickabaugh, C.A. (2003). Final report for the Capitola Police Department, Santa Cruz Police Department, Santa Cruz Sheriffs Office, Scotts Valley Police Department, and Watsonville Police Department. Pennsylvania : Lamberth Consulting.
60.
Ringold, D., Orenstein, M.A. and Wilkens, E. (2003). Roma in an expanding Europe: Breaking the poverty cycle. Washington DC: World Bank .
61.
Scarman, Lord Justice (1981). The Brixton disorders 10-12 April 1981. Cmnd 8427. London : Home Office.
62.
Secretaria de Estado de Inmigración y Emigración, Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales and Instituto Nacional de Estadistica (2006 ). URL (accessed 15th March 2006): http://extranjeros.mtas.es/es/index.html
63.
Skogan, W. (2006). Asymmetry in the impact of encounters with the police. Policing and Society, 16, 99-126.
64.
Smith, W.R., Tomaskovic-Devey, D., Zingraff, M.T., Mason, H.M., Warren, P.Y., Wright, C.P., McMurray, H. and Fenlon, C.R. (2003). The North Carolina highway traffic study: Final report to the National Institute of Justice US Department of Justice. North Carolina: North Carolina State University Raleigh andNorth Carolina Central UniversityDurham.
65.
Smith, D.J. (1983). Police and people in London I: A survey of Londoners . London: Policy Studies Institute .
66.
Sos Racismo (2003). Annual report on racism in the Spanish state. Barcelona: SOS Racismo.
Sunshine, J. and Tyler, T. (2003). The role of procedural justice and legitimacy in shaping public support for policing. Law and Society Review37, 513-48.
69.
Székelyi, M., Örkény, A. and Csepeli, G. (2001). Romakép a mai magyar társadalomban. Szociológiai Szemle2001/3, 19-46.
70.
Tuck, M. and Southgate, P. (1981). Ethnic minorities, crime and policing. London: HMSO.
71.
Undp (2002). Avoiding the dependency trap: The Roma in central and eastern Europe. Bratislava : United Nations Development Programme.
72.
Undp (2005). Faces of poverty, faces of hope: Vulnerability profiles for decade of Roma inclusion countries . New York: United Nations Development Programme.
73.
Undp (2006). Human development report. New York: United Nations Development Programme. URL (accessed 15th March 2006): http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/
74.
Unión Romaní (1997). Periodistas contra el racismo? La prensa española ante el pueblo gitano durante 1995 y 1996. Barcelona: Unión Romaní.
75.
Unión Romaní (2002). Periodistas contra el racismo? La prensa española ante el pueblo gitano durante 2000. Barcelona: Unión Romaní.
76.
Waddington, P.A.J., Stenson, K. and Don, D. (2004). In proportion: Race and police stop and search . British Journal of Criminology44, 889-914.
77.
Walker, M., Jefferson, T. and Seneviratne, M. (1990). Ethnic minorities young people and the criminal justice system. ESRC Project No. E06250023, Final Report.
78.
Willis, C. (1983). The use, effectiveness and impact of police stop and search powers. London: Home Office.
79.
Young, J. (1994). Policing the streets: Stops and search in North London. Middlesex: Centre for Criminology, Middlesex University.
