This paper develops a model to predict threshold frequencies of stroboscopic effects under varying duty cycles, object speeds and illuminances. Visual experiments were conducted using a modulated LED light source (4500 K) illuminating a rotating black disk with a white dot. The LED was driven by a square waveform (100 Hz to 4200 Hz) at different duty cycles. Participants’ perception of stroboscopic effects was assessed across varying conditions using the method of constant stimuli, deriving the 50% detection threshold. The proposed model describes the relationship between threshold frequency and modulation parameters, aiding luminaire design to minimize stroboscopic effects.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Product Quality Initiative. LED Luminaire Lifetime: Recommendations for Testing and Reporting. Next Generation Lighting Industry Alliance and the U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
2.
HoKCWangSCLiuYH.Dimming techniques focusing on the improvement in luminous efficiency for high-brightness LEDs. Electronics2021; 10: 2163.
3.
RodriguesWAMoraisLMFDonoso-GarciaPF, et al. Comparative analysis of power LEDs dimming methods. IECON 2011 – 37th Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, 2011: 2907–2912.
4.
DybleMNarendranNBiermanA, et al. Impact of dimming white LEDs: chromaticity shifts due to different dimming methods. Proceeding of SPIE 59411H, Fifth International Conference on Solid State Lighting, San Diego, CA, USA, 14September2005.
5.
WilkinsAVeitchJLehmanB. LED lighting flicker and potential health concerns: IEEE standard PAR1789 update. 2010 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition, Atlanta, GA, USA, 2010: 171–178.
6.
SekulovskiDPoortSPerzM, et al. Effects of long-term exposure to stroboscopic effect from moderate-level modulated light. Lighting Research and Technology2020; 52: 775–789.
7.
ZhaoXHouDLinY, et al. The effect of stroboscopic effect on human health indicators. Lighting Research and Technology2020; 52: 389–406.
8.
Commission International de l’Eäclairage. Visual Aspects of Time-Modulated Lighting Systems. CIE 249:2022. Vienna: CIE, 2022.
9.
CovanisA.Photosensitivity in idiopathic generalized epilepsies. Epilepsia2005; 46: 67–72.
10.
PerzMVogelsISekulovskiD, et al. Modeling the visibility of the stroboscopic effect occurring in temporally modulated light systems. Lighting Research and Technology2015; 47: 281–300.
11.
McCollSLVeitchJA.Full-spectrum fluorescent lighting: a review of its effects on physiology and health. Psychological Medicine2001; 31: 949–964.
12.
BulloughJDHickcoxKSKleinTR, et al. Effects of flicker characteristics from solid-state lighting on detection, acceptability and comfort. Lighting Research and Technology2011; 43: 337–348.
13.
ReaMSOuelletteMJ.Table-tennis under High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lighting. Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society1988; 17: 29–35.
14.
ApryandiHDupuisPSinisukaNI, et al. Stroboscopic Visibility Measure: assessment of pulsed light parameters. 2020 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Detroit, MI, USA, 2020: 1–4.
15.
BermanSMGreenhouseDSBaileyIL, et al. Human electroretinogram responses to video displays, fluorescent lighting, and other high frequency sources. Optometry and Vision Science1991; 68: 645–662.
16.
BommelWBeldGJ.Lighting for work: a review of visual and biological effects. Lighting Research and Technology2004; 36: 255–266.
17.
PerzMSekulovskiD.Temporal light artifacts: the influence of PWM dimming. Lighting Research and Technology2018; 50: 615–631.
18.
BoycePR.Light, lighting and human health. Lighting Research and Technology2022; 54: 101–144.
19.
Commission International de l’Eäclairage. Visual Aspects of Time-Modulated Lighting Systems – Definitions and Measurement Models. CIE TN 006:2016. Vienna: CIE, 2016.
20.
FrierJPHendersonAJ.Stroboscopic effect of high intensity discharge lamps. Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society1973; 3: 83–86.
21.
VogelsISekulovskiSPerzM.Visible artefacts of LEDs. Proceedings of 27th Session of the CIE, Sun City, South Africa, 9–16 July2011: 42–51.
22.
BulloughJHickcoxKKleinT, et al. Detection and acceptability of stroboscopic effects from flicker. Lighting Research and Technology2012; 44: 477–483.
23.
IEEE Power Electronics Society. IEEE Recommended Practices for Modulating Current in High-Brightness LEDs for Mitigating Health Risks to Viewers. IEEE STD 1789TM-2015. IEEE, New York, USA, 2015.
24.
WangLTuYLiuL, et al. 50.2: Invited paper: stroboscopic effect of LED lighting. SID Symposium Digest of Technical Papers2015; 46: 754–757.
25.
PerzMSekulovskiDVogelsI, et al. 77-1: Invited Paper: modelling visibility of temporal light artefacts. SID Symposium Digest of Technical Papers2018; 49: 1028–1031.
26.
MartinsonsCVeitchJA. Visual perception under energy-efficient light sources: detection of the stroboscopic effect under low levels of SVM. PhD dissertation. CSTB – Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâtiment; NRC Construction, France and Canada, 2019.
27.
PerzMBeeckmanPSekulovskiD.Acceptability criteria for the stroboscopic effect visibility measure. CIE 2017 Midterm Meetings and Conference on Smarter Light for Better Life, Jeju, South Korea, 23 to 25 October 2017: 453–459.
28.
VeitchJAMartinsonsC.Detection of the stroboscopic effect by young adults varying in sensitivity. Lighting Research and Technology2020; 52: 790–810.
29.
ParkSWLeeCSKangHR, et al. Visibility of the phantom array effect according to luminance, chromaticity and geometry. Lighting Research and Technology2020; 52: 377–388.
30.
MillerNJBermudezERFIrvinL, et al. Phantom array and stroboscopic effect visibility under combinations of TLM parameters. Lighting Research and Technology2024; 56: 707–733.
31.
LongLLSrinivasanM.Walking, running, and resting under time, distance, and average speed constraints: optimality of walk-run-rest mixtures. Journal of the Royal Society Interface2013; 10: 20120980.
32.
HerzogAWagnerMKhanhTQ.Efficiency droop in green InGaN/GaN light emitting diodes: degradation mechanisms and initial characteristics. Microelectronics Reliability2020; 112: 113792.
33.
HerzogAWagnerMKhanhTQ.Monitoring the optical degradation of green light-emitting diodes on the basis of measured electrical characteristics. Microelectronics Reliability2021; 121: 114147.
34.
HerzogABenknerSZandiB, et al. Lifetime prediction of current-and temperature-induced degradation in silicone-encapsulated 365 nm high-power light-emitting diodes. IEEE Access2023; 11: 19928–19940.
35.
WagnerMHerzogAGanevH, et al. LED aging acceleration: an analysis from measuring and aging data of 14,000 hours LED degradation. 2015 12th China International Forum on Solid State Lighting, Shenzhen, China, November2015: 75–78.
36.
WagnerMHerzogAGanevH, et al. Lifetime calculation of white HP-LEDs from 16,000 hours aging data. LED Professional Review2017; 59: 34–38.
37.
PirenneMH.Dark-adaptation and night vision. In DavsonH (ed.) The Visual Process. Academic Press, New York, 1962: 93–122.
38.
ChenTHerzogAKhanhTQ, Detection of stroboscopic effects in dependence of duty cycle, speed and illuminance level. Lux junior 2023: 16. Internationales Forum für den lichttechnischen Nachwuchs, Ilmenau: Tagungsband, Germany, Juni2023: 25–41.
39.
MillerNJIrvinLRoyerM, et al. Visibility and annoyance of the phantom array effect varies with age and history of migraine. Lighting Research and Technology2024; 56: 676–706.
40.
PerzMSekulovskiDVogelsI, et al. Quantifying the visibility of periodic flicker. Leukos2017; 13: 127–142.
41.
PerzMSekulovskiDVogelsI, et al. Stroboscopic effect: contrast threshold function and dependence on illumination level. Journal of the Optical Society of America A2018; 35: 309–319.
