The optimal illuminance from road lighting for pedestrian reassurance after dark is that beyond which further increase in illuminance has no significant effect on reassurance. Previous studies have not revealed a precise estimate of optimal illuminance. The current study investigates the use of segmented regression for defining optimal illuminance, applied to 25 662 reassurance evaluations by 380 test participants who recorded their reassurance assessments in 253 locations in three cities in Israel. Segmented regression led to models which better fit the empirical data than their unsegmented counterparts and offered precise estimates of optimal illuminance, these ranging from 8.9 lx to 26 lx, depending on location.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
PlainisSMurrayIJCharmanNW. The role of retinal adaptation in night driving. Optometry and Vision Science2005; 82(8): 682–688.
2.
British Standards Institution. Code of Practice for the Design of Road Lighting Part 1: Lighting of Roads and Public Amenity Areas. BS 5489-1:2020. London: BSI, 2020.
3.
CaminadaJFvan BommelWJM. New lighting criteria for residential areas. Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society1984; 13(4): 350–358.
4.
FotiosSUttleyJYangB. Using eye-tracking to identify pedestrians’ critical visual tasks. Part 2. Fixation on pedestrians. Lighting Research and Technology2015; 47(2): 149–160.
5.
FotiosSUttleyJChealCHaraN. Using eye-tracking to identify pedestrians’ critical visual tasks. Part 1. Dual task approach. Lighting Research and Technology2015; 47(2): 133–148.
6.
Commission Internationale De L'Éclairage. Lighting for Pedestrians: A Summary of Empirical Data. CIE 236:2019. Vienna: CIE, 2019.
7.
FotiosSUnwinJFarrallS. Road lighting and pedestrian reassurance after dark: A review. Lighting Research and Technology2015; 47: 449–469.
8.
LoewenLJSteelGDSuedfeldP. Perceived safety from crime in the urban environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology1993; 13: 323–331.
9.
PortnovBASaadRTropTKligerDSvechkinaA. Linking nighttime outdoor lighting attributes to pedestrians’ feeling of safety: an interactive survey approach. PLoS ONE2020; 15: e0242172.
10.
PortnovBACASaadRTropT. Interactive scenario-based assessment approach of urban street lighting and its application to estimating energy saving benefits. Energies2021; 14: 378.
11.
SaadRPortnovBATropT. Saving energy while maintaining the feeling of safety associated with urban street lighting. Journal of Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy2021; 23: 251–269.
12.
FosterSHooperPKnuimanMChristianHBullFGiles-CortiB. Safe RESIDential Environments? A longitudinal analysis of the influence of crime-related safety on walking. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity2016; 13: 22–30.
13.
FosterSKnuimanMHooperPChristianHGiles-CortiB. Do changes in residents’ fear of crime impact their walking? Longitudinal results from RESIDE. Preventive Medicine2014; 62: 161–166.
14.
MasonPKearnsALivingstonM. “Safe going”: the influence of crime rates and perceived crime and safety on walking in deprived neighbourhoods. Social Science and Medicine2013; 91: 15–24.
15.
BoycePR. The benefits of light at night. Building and Environment2019; 151: 356–367.
16.
JägerbrandAK. New framework of sustainable indicators for outdoor LED (light emitting diodes) lighting and SSL (solid state lighting). Sustainability2015; 7: 1028–1063.
17.
JägerbrandAK. Synergies and trade-offs between sustainable development and energy performance of exterior lighting. Energies2020; 13: 2245.
18.
SvechkinaAPortnovBATropT. The impact of artificial light at night on human and ecosystem health: a systematic literature review. Landscape Ecology2020; 35: 1725–1742.
19.
FotiosSGibbonsR. Road lighting research for drivers and pedestrians: The basis of luminance and illuminance recommendations. Lighting Research and Technology2018; 50: 154–186.
20.
FotiosS. A review of design recommendations for P-class road lighting in European and CIE documents - Part 1: parameters for choosing a lighting class. Lighting Research and Technology2020; 52: 607–625.
21.
BlöbaumAHuneckeM. Perceived danger in urban public space. The impacts of physical features and personal factors. Environment and Behavior2005; 37: 465–486.
22.
Peña-GarcíaAHurtadoAAguilar-LuzónMC. Impact of public lighting on pedestrians’ perception of safety and well-being. Safety Science2015; 78: 142–148.
23.
SvechkinaATropTPortnovBA. How much lighting is required to feel safe when walking through the streets at night?Sustainability2020; 12: 3133.
24.
BoycePREklundNHHamiltonBJBrunoLD. Perceptions of safety at night in different lighting conditions. Lighting Research and Technology2000; 32: 79–91.
25.
FotiosSLiachenko MonteiroAUttleyJ. Evaluation of pedestrian reassurance gained by higher illuminances in residential streets using the day-dark approach. Lighting Research and Technology2019; 51(4): 557–575.
26.
BatesDMWattsDG. Nonlinear Regression Analysis and Its Applications. New York, NY: John Wiley, 1988.
27.
SmithFBShannoAF. An improved Marquart procedure for nonlinear regressions. Technometrics1971; 13(1): 63–74.
MuggeoVMR. Estimating regression models with unknown break-points. Statistics in Medicine2003; 22: 3055–3071.
30.
RamseyATMakiJPrusaczykBYanYWangJLobbR. Using segmented regression analysis of interrupted time series data to assess colonoscopy quality outcomes of a web enhanced implementation toolkit to support evidence-based practices for bowel preparation: A study protocol. Implementation Science2015; 10: 85.
31.
HabibNSteynPSBoydellVCorderoJPNguyenMHThwinSS, et al.The use of segmented regression for evaluation of an interrupted time series study involving complex intervention: The CaPSAI project experience. Health Services and Outcomes Research Methodology2021; 21: 188–205.
32.
TaljaardMMcKenzieJERamsayCRGrimshawJM. The use of segmented regression in analysing interrupted time series studies: an example in pre-hospital ambulance care. Implementation Science2014; 9: 77.
33.
TzengI-SChienK-LTuY-KChenJ-YNgCYChienC-Y, et al.Segmented regression analysis of emergency departments patient visits from Septicemia in Taiwan. Health Policy and Technology2018; 7: 149–155.
34.
WagnerAKSoumeraiSBZhangFRoss-DegnanD. Segmented regression analysis of interrupted time series studies in medication use research. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics2002; 27: 299–309.
35.
ZandianHTakianARashidianABayatiMMoghadamTZRezaeiS, et al.Effects of Iranian economic reforms on equity in social and healthcare financing: A segmented regression analysis. Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health2018; 51: 83–91.
GeissbühlerMHincapiéCAAghlmandiSZwahlenMJüniPda CostaBR. Most published meta-regression analyses based on aggregate data suffer from methodological pitfalls: A meta-epidemiological study. BMC Medical Research Methodology2021; 21: 123.
