High-order harmonic guided waves are sensitive to micro-scale damage in thin-walled structures, thus, conducive to its early detection. In typical autonomous structural health monitoring (SHM) systems activated by surface-bonded piezoelectric wafer transducers, adhesive nonlinearity (AN) is a non-negligible adverse nonlinear source that can overwhelm the damage-induced nonlinear signals and jeopardize the diagnosis if not adequately mitigated. This paper first establishes that the second harmonic shear horizontal (second SH) waves are immune to AN while exhibiting strong sensitivity to cracks in a plate. Capitalizing on this feature, the feasibility of using second SH waves for crack detection is investigated. Finite element (FE) simulations are conducted to shed light on the physical mechanism governing the second SH wave generation and their interaction with the contact acoustic nonlinearity (CAN). Theoretical and numerical results are validated by experiments in which the level of the AN is tactically adjusted. Results show that the commonly used second harmonic S0 (second S0) mode Lamb waves are prone to AN variation. By contrast, the second SH0 waves show high robustness to the same degree of AN changes while preserving a reasonable sensitivity to breathing cracks, demonstrating their superiority for SHM applications.
JhangKY. Nonlinear ultrasonic techniques for nondestructive assessment of micro damage in material: a review (vol 10, pg 123, 2009). Int J Precis Eng Man2009; 18: 139.
2.
RadeckiRSuZChengL, et al.Modelling nonlinearity of guided ultrasonic waves in fatigued materials using a nonlinear local interaction simulation approach and a spring model. Ultrasonics2018; 84: 272–289.
3.
FierroGPMCiampaFGinzburgD, et al.Nonlinear ultrasound modelling and validation of fatigue damage. J Sound Vibration2015; 343: 121–130.
4.
DengMX. Analysis of second-harmonic generation of lamb modes using a modal analysis approach. J Appl Phys2003; 94: 4152–4159.
5.
BermesCKimJ-YQuJ, et al.Nonlinear lamb waves for the detection of material nonlinearity. Mech Syst Signal Process2008; 22: 638–646.
6.
DuttaDSohnHHarriesKA, et al.A nonlinear acoustic technique for crack detection in metallic structures. (vol 8, pg 251, 2009). Struct Health Monit2009; 8: 573.
7.
ZhouCHongMSuZQ, et al.Evaluation of fatigue cracks using nonlinearities of acousto-ultrasonic waves acquired by an active sensor network. Smart Mater Struct2013; 22: 015018.
8.
PruellCKimJ-YQuJ, et al.A nonlinear-guided wave technique for evaluating plasticity-driven material damage in a metal plate. NDT E Int2009; 42: 199–203.
9.
YangYNgC-TKotousovA, et al.Second harmonic generation at fatigue cracks by low-frequency lamb waves: experimental and numerical studies. Mech Syst Signal Process2018; 99: 760–773.
10.
AnYKSohnH. Visualization of non-propagating lamb wave modes for fatigue crack evaluation. J Appl Phys2015; 117: 114904.
11.
KhassetarashAHassannejadR. Energy dissipation caused by fatigue crack in beam-like cracked structures. J Sound Vibration2016; 363: 247–257.
12.
ScarselliGCiampaFGinzburgD, et al.Non-destructive testing techniques based on nonlinear methods for assessment of debonding in single lap joints. Struct Health Monit Inspection Adv Mater Aerospace, Civil Infrastructure2015; 9437: 943706.
13.
ShuiGWangY-SHuangP, et al.Nonlinear ultrasonic evaluation of the fatigue damage of adhesive joints. NDT E Int2015; 70: 9–15.
14.
BrodaDPieczonkaLHiwarkarV, et al.Generation of higher harmonics in longitudinal vibration of beams with breathing cracks. J Sound Vibration2016; 381: 206–219.
15.
GuhaABijudasCR. Higher and sub-harmonic lamb wave mode generation due to debond-induced contact nonlinearity. Health Monit Struct Biol Syst2016; 9805.
16.
DestradeMOgdenRW. On the third- and fourth-order constants of incompressible isotropic elasticity. The J Acoust Soc America2010; 128: 3334–3343.
17.
LissendenCJLiuYChoiGW, et al. Effect of localized microstructure evolution on higher harmonic generation of guided waves. J Nondestructive Eval2014; 33: 178–186.
18.
ChoiGLiuYYaoXC, et al.Effect of localized microstructural evolution on higher harmonic generation of guided wave modes. 41st Annu Rev Prog Quantitative Nondestructive Eval2015; 34 1650: 1592–1598.
19.
ChillaraVKLissendenCJ. Nonlinear guided waves in plates: a numerical perspective. Ultrasonics2014; 54: 1553–1558.
20.
ChillaraVKLissendenCJ. Nonlinear guided waves in plates undergoing localized microstructural changes. 41st Annu Rev Prog Quantitative Nondestructive Eval2015; 34 1650: 1561–1569.
21.
ShanSBChengLLiP. Adhesive nonlinearity in lamb-wave-based structural health monitoring systems. Smart Mater Struct2017; 26.
22.
ShanSBChengLWenFZ. Design of nonlinear-lamb-wave-based structural health monitoring systems with mitigated adhesive nonlinearity. Smart Mater Struct2018; 27.
23.
LiuYChillaraVKLissendenCJ. On selection of primary modes for generation of strong internally resonant second harmonics in plate. J Sound Vibration2013; 332: 4517–4528.
24.
LiuYChillaraVKLissendenCJ, et al.Third harmonic shear horizontal and rayleigh lamb waves in weakly nonlinear plates. J Appl Phys2013; 114.
25.
ShanSChengL. Mixed third harmonic shear horizontal wave generation: interaction between primary shear horizontal wave and second harmonic lamb wave. Smart Mater Structures2019; 28: 085042.
26.
WenFShanSChengL. Third harmonic shear horizontal waves for material degradation monitoring. Struct Health Monit2021; 20: 475–483.
27.
GiurgiutiuV. Structural Health Monitoring: With Piezoelectric Wafer Active Sensors. New York: Elsevier, 2007.
28.
SeungHMKimHWKimYY. Development of an omni-directional shear-horizontal wave magnetostrictive patch transducer for plates. Ultrasonics2013; 53: 1304–1308.
29.
KamalGiurgiutiuV.Shear horizontal wave excitation and reception with shear horizontal piezoelectric wafer active sensor (SH-PWAS). Smart Mater Struct2014; 23: 085019.
30.
ZhouWLiHYuanF-G. Fundamental understanding of wave generation and reception using d36 type piezoelectric transducers. Ultrasonics2015; 57: 135–143.
31.
LiPShanSWenF, et al.A fully-coupled dynamic model for the fundamental shear horizontal wave generation in a PZT activated SHM system. Mech Syst Signal Process2019; 116: 916–932.
32.
BelangerPBoivinG. Development of a low frequency omnidirectional piezoelectric shear horizontal wave transducer. Smart Mater Struct2016; 25: 045024.
33.
WordenK. Nonlinearity in Structural Dynamics: Detection, Identification and Modelling. New York: CRC Press, 2019.
34.
SolodovIYKrohnNBusseG. CAN: an example of nonclassical acoustic nonlinearity in solids. Ultrasonics2002; 40: 621–625.
35.
FriswellMIPennyJET. Crack modeling for structural health monitoring. Struct Health Monitoring2002; 1: 139–148.
36.
GudmundsonP. The dynamic behaviour of slender structures with cross-sectional cracks. J Mech Phys Sol1983; 31: 329–345.
37.
KawashimaKOmoteRItoT, et al.Nonlinear acoustic response through minute surface cracks: FEM simulation and experimentation. Ultrasonics2002; 40: 611–615.
38.
ShenYGiurgiutiuV. Predictive modeling of nonlinear wave propagation for structural health monitoring with piezoelectric wafer active sensors. J Intell Mater Syst Structures2014; 25: 506–520.
39.
ShanSChengLWenF. Characterization of nonplanar second harmonic lamb waves with a refined nonlinear parameter. J Nondestructive Eval Diagn Prognostics Eng Syst2018; 1: 011004.
40.
LandauLDLifshitsEMKosevichAM, et al.Theory of Elasticity. 3rd English edn. New York: Pergamon Press, 1986.
41.
WenFShanSRadeckiR, et al.Shear-lag modelling of surface-bonded magnetostrictive transducers for shear horizontal wave generation in a non-ferromagnetic plate. Smart Mater Structures2021; 30: 035026.
42.
ChoHHasanianMShanS, et al.. Nonlinear guided wave technique for localized damage detection in plates with surface-bonded sensors to receive lamb waves generated by shear-horizontal wave mixing. NDT E Int2019; 102: 35–46.
