This study aims to investigate the bond quality of aluminum–epoxy–aluminum tri-layer bonds using nonlinear ultrasonics. An experimental methodology was developed in which the tri-layer bonds with different interface qualities were inspected using the fundamental shear horizontal guided wave mode (SH0). An in-house developed magnetostrictive transducer assembly was used to excite the SH0 wave mode in the bonded samples. The harmonic generation of the SH0 wave mode was confirmed using dispersion curves overlaid on short-time Fourier transform (STFT) and frequency–wavenumber plots. The sensitivity of the third harmonics to the interface quality of the bonds was estimated using a relative nonlinearity parameter (). In this work, the mean for the non-sandblasted bond is found to be 70% more than that of the sandblasted sample, which shows the sensitivity of the third-harmonic generation to the interfacial degradation. The analysis shows that the technique can be implemented for a quick and early inspection of the bonded samples for their bond quality.
AlleyneDCawleyP (1991) A two-dimensional Fourier transform method for the measurement of propagating multimode signals. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America89(3): 1159–1168.
2.
BermesCKimJYQuJ, et al.(2007) Experimental characterization of material nonlinearity using Lamb waves. Applied Physics Letters90(2).
3.
CastaingsM (2014a) SH ultrasonic guided waves for the evaluation of interfacial adhesion. In: Ultrasonics, Amsterdam: Elsevier B.V: pp. 1760–1775. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultras.2014.03.002.
4.
CastaingsM (2014b) SH ultrasonic guided waves for the evaluation of interfacial adhesion. In: Ultrasonics, Amsterdam: Elsevier B.V: pp. 1760–1775. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultras.2014.03.002.
5.
ChenHDengMGaoG, et al. (2022) Characterization of interfacial property of a two-layered plate using a nonlinear low-frequency Lamb wave approach. Ultrasonics 124, Amsterdam: Elsevier B.V. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultras.2022.106741.
6.
ChillaraVKLissendenCJ (2014) Nonlinear guided waves in plates: a numerical perspective. Ultrasonics54(6): 1553–1558. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultras.2014.04.009.
7.
ChillaraVKLissendenCJ (2015) Review of nonlinear ultrasonic guided wave nondestructive evaluation: theory, numerics, and experiments. Optical Engineering55(1): 011002. DOI: 10.1117/1.OE.55.1.011002.
8.
DengM (2003) Analysis of second-harmonic generation of Lamb modes using a modal analysis approach. Journal of Applied Physics94(6): 4152–4159. DOI: 10.1063/1.1601312.
9.
DengMPeiJ (2007) Assessment of accumulated fatigue damage in solid plates using nonlinear Lamb wave approach. Applied Physics Letters90(12). DOI: 10.1063/1.2714333.
10.
DixonSEdwardsCPalmerSB (2001) A technique for accurate shear wave velocity measurements of thin epoxy resin samples using electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs). Measurement Science and Technology12(5): 615–621. DOI: 10.1088/0957-0233/12/5/308.
11.
DixonSJaquesDPalmerSB, et al. (2004) The measurement of shear and compression waves in curing epoxy adhesives using ultrasonic reflection and transmission techniques simultaneously. Measurement Science and Technology15(5): 939–947. Institute of Physics Publishing. DOI: 10.1088/0957-0233/15/5/023.
12.
DrinkwaterBCawleyP (1997) Measurement of the frequency dependence of the ultrasonic reflection coefficient from thin interface layers and partially contacting interfaces. Ultrasonics35(7): 479–488. DOI: 10.1016/S0041-624X(97)00072-3.
13.
HarrisAFBeeversA (1999) The effects of grit-blasting on surface properties for adhesion. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives19(6): 445–452. DOI: 10.1016/S0143-7496(98)00061-X.
14.
HasanianMLissendenCJ (2018) Directional nonlinear guided wave mixing: case study of counter-propagating shear horizontal waves. In: AIP Conference Proceedings, 20 April 2018. Maryland, USA: American Institute of Physics Inc.
15.
HikataAElbaumC (1966) Generation of ultrasonic second and third harmonics due to dislocations. Physical Review144(2): 469–477. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.144.469.
16.
JiangCZhangCLiW, et al. (2022) Assessment of damage in composites using static component generation of ultrasonic guided waves. Smart Materials and Structures31(4). DOI: 10.1088/1361-665X/ac5a77.
17.
JingpinJXiangjiMCunfuH, et al. (2017) Nonlinear lamb wave-mixing technique for micro-crack detection in plates. NDT and E International85: 63–71. Elsevier Ltd: . DOI: 10.1016/j.ndteint.2016.10.006.
18.
KimYYKwonYE (2015) Review of magnetostrictive patch transducers and applications in ultrasonic nondestructive testing of waveguides. Ultrasonics. Amsterdam: Elsevier B.V. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultras.2015.05.015.
19.
KoodalilDBarnoncelDRajagopalP, et al. (2020) Detection of interfacial weakness in a lap-shear joint using shear horizontal guided waves. NDT and E International112. Elsevier Ltd. DOI: 10.1016/j.ndteint.2020.102248.
20.
KoodalilDRajagopalPBalasubramaniamK (2021a) Bond stiffness estimation with shear horizontal guided waves generated using PPM-EMATs. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives104. Elsevier Ltd. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2020.102761.
21.
KoodalilDRajagopalPBalasubramaniamK (2021b) Quantifying adhesive thickness and adhesion parameters using higher-order SH guided waves. Ultrasonics114: 106429. Elsevier B.V. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultras.2021.106429.
22.
KwunHBartelsKA (1998) Magnetostrictive sensor technology and its applications. Ultrasonics36(1–5): 171–178. DOI: 10.1016/S0041-624X(97)00043-7.
23.
KwunHHoltAE (1995) Feasibility of under-lagging corrosion detection in steel pipe using the magnetostrictive sensor technique. NDT and E International28(4): 211–214. DOI: 10.1016/0963-8695(95)00019-T.
24.
KwunHKimSY (2005) Magnetostrictive sensor for generating and detecting plate guided waves. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Transactions of the ASME127(3): 284–289. DOI: 10.1115/1.1991874.
25.
LavrentyevAIRokhlinSI (1998) Ultrasonic spectroscopy of imperfect contact interfaces between a layer and two solids. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America103(2).
26.
le CromBCastaingsM (2010) Shear horizontal guided wave modes to infer the shear stiffness of adhesive bond layers. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America127(4). Acoustical Society of America (ASA).
LiWXiaoJDengM (2022) Micro-defect imaging with an improved resolution using nonlinear ultrasonic Lamb waves. Journal of Applied Physics131(18). DOI: 10.1063/5.0087619.
29.
LissendenCJLiuYChoiGW, et al. (2014) Effect of localized microstructure evolution on higher harmonic generation of guided waves. Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation33(2): 178–186.
30.
LissendenCJLiuYRoseJL (2015) Use of non-linear ultrasonic guided waves for early damage detection. Insight: non-destructive testing and condition monitoring. British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing57(4).: 206–211. DOI: 10.1784/insi.2015.57.4.206.
31.
LiuYChillaraVKLissendenCJ, et al. (2013) Third harmonic shear horizontal and Rayleigh Lamb waves in weakly nonlinear plates. Journal of Applied Physics114(11). DOI: 10.1063/1.4821252.
32.
LiuYLissendenCJRoseJL (2014) Microstructural characterization in plates using guided wave third harmonic generation. In: AIP Conference Proceedings, 2014, College Park, Maryland: American Institute of Physics Incpp. 639–645.
33.
LiuYZhaoYDengM, et al. (2022) One-way Lamb and SH mixing method in thin plates with quadratic nonlinearity: Numerical and experimental studies. Ultrasonics124. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultras.2022.106761.
34.
MatlackKHKimJYJacobsLJ, et al. (2015) Review of second harmonic generation measurement techniques for material state determination in metals. Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation34(1). DOI: 10.1007/s10921-014-0273-5.
35.
MetyaAKTarafderSBalasubramaniamK (2018) Nonlinear Lamb wave mixing for assessing localized deformation during creep. NDT & E International98: 89–94. DOI: 10.1016/j.ndteint.2018.04.013.
36.
MurayamaR (1996) Driving mechanism on magnetostrictive type electromagnetic acoustic transducer for symmetrical vertical-mode Lamb wave and for shear horizontal-mode plate wave. Ultrasonics34(7): 729–736. DOI: 10.1016/0041-624X(96)00073-X.
37.
PavlakovicBLoweMAlleyneD, et al. (1997) Disperse: a general purpose program for creating dispersion curves. In: Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation. Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 185–192. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-5947-4_24.
38.
PruellCKimJYQuJ, et al. (2007) Evaluation of plasticity driven material damage using Lamb waves. Applied Physics Letters91(23). DOI: 10.1063/1.2811954.
39.
PuthillathPRoseJL (2010) Ultrasonic guided wave inspection of a titanium repair patch bonded to an aluminum aircraft skin. International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives30(7): 566–573. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijadhadh.2010.05.008.
40.
RibichiniRCeglaFNagyPB, et al. (2011) Study and comparison of different EMAT configurations for SH wave inspection. IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control58(12): 2571–2581. DOI: 10.1109/TUFFC.2011.2120.
41.
RoseJL (2014) Ultrasonic Guided Waves in Solid Media. Cambridg: Cambridge University Press.
42.
ShanSChengL (2019) Mixed third harmonic shear horizontal wave generation: interaction between primary shear horizontal wave and second harmonic Lamb wave. Smart Materials and Structures28(8). Institute of Physics Publishing. DOI: 10.1088/1361-665X/ab1fce.
43.
SiryabeERénierMMezianeA, et al. (2017) Apparent anisotropy of adhesive bonds with weak adhesion and non-destructive evaluation of interfacial properties. Ultrasonics79: 34–51. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultras.2017.02.020.
44.
TzannesNS (1966) Joule and Wiedemann effects—the simultaneous generation of longitudinal and torsional stress pulses in magnetostrictive materials. IEEE Transactions on Sonics and Ultrasonics SU13(2): 33–41. DOI: 10.1109/T-SU.1966.29373.
45.
VinogradovSCobbALightG (2017) Review of magnetostrictive transducers (MsT) utilizing reversed Wiedemann effect. In: AIP Conference Proceedings. College Park, Maryland: American Institute of Physics Inc.
46.
WenFShanSChengL (2021) Third harmonic shear horizontal waves for material degradation monitoring. Structural Health Monitoring20(2): 475–483. SAGE Publications Ltd. DOI: 10.1177/1475921720936983.
47.
ZuoPZhouYFanZ (2016) Numerical and experimental investigation of nonlinear ultrasonic Lamb waves at low frequency. Applied Physics Letters109(2). DOI: 10.1063/1.4958705.
