This article examines the various claims made about sojourn children known as kaigaishijo and kikokushijo, or third culture kids (TCKs) in a Japanese context. Their image has shifted from educationally disadvantaged to internationally minded children with bilingual and bicultural abilities who can thrive in the era of globalization. The article also considers and further develops the multidimensional theoretical model originally proposed by Ebuchi to reflect more closely the sojourner and TCK lifestyles, on which empirical studies could be based.
Adler, P.S. (1975) `The transitional experience: an alternative view of culture shock'. Journal of Humanistic Psychology15(4): 13—23.
2.
Agar, M. (1994) `The intercultural frame'. International Journal of Interculturation Relations18: 221—37.
3.
Al-Ali N. and Koser, K. (2002) `Transnationalism, international migration and home', in N. Al-Ali and K. Koser (eds) New Approaches to Migration? Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home. London: Routledge.
4.
Baker, C. (2001) Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism . Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
5.
Bauman, Z. (2005) Liquid Life. Cambridge: Polity Press.
6.
Bennett, J. (1977) `Transition Shock: Putting Culture Shock in Perspective' . International and Intercultural Communication Annual4: 45—52.
7.
Berry, J.W. (1997) `Immigration, acculturation and adaptation'. Applied Psychology: An International Review46: 5—34.
8.
Block, D. (2003) The Social Turn in Second Language Acquisition . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
9.
Block, D. and Cameron, D. , eds (2002) Globalization and Language Teaching . London: Routledge.
10.
Bourhis, R.Y., Moise, L.C., Perreault, S. AND Senecal, S. (1997) `Towards an interactive acculturation model: a social psychological approach'. International Journal of Psychology32(6): 369—86.
11.
Britten, S.L. (2001) What is a TCK? Available at: http://www.tckworld.com/tckdefine.html (accessed 28 October 2001).
12.
Campbell, A. (2000) `Cultural identity as a social construct'. Intercultural Education11(1): 31—9.
13.
Carlson, D. (1997) Being a Global Nomad: The Pros and Cons. Available at: http://worldweave.com/procon.htm (accessed 1 October 2001).
14.
Cohen, E. (1972) `Toward a sociology of international tourism'. Social Research39: 164—82.
15.
Cottrell, A.B. (1999) `Personal manifestations of childhood border crossings: identity and personal traits of adult TCKs'. Paper presented at Phi Beta Delta1999Annual Conference , San Diego, CA.
16.
Ebuchi, K. (1983) `Kodomotachi no ibunka sesshoku' [ `Children's cross-cultural contacts'], in T. Kobayashi (ed.) Ibunka ni Sodatsu Kodomotchi. Tokyo: Yuhikaku.
17.
Ebuchi, K. (1994) Ibunkakan Kyoikugaku Josetsu [Introduction to Cross-cultural Education]. Tokyo: Kyushu Daigaku Shuppan Kai.
18.
Faist, T. (2004) `The border-crossing expansion of social space: concepts, questions and topics', in T. Faist and E. Ozveren (eds) Transnational Social Spaces. Aldershot: Ashgate.
19.
Fantini, A.F. (1995) `Introduction — language, culture and world view: exploring the nexus'. International Journal of Intercultural Relations19(2): 143—53.
20.
Ferraro,G.,Trevathan,W.ANDLevy,J.( 1994)Anthropology:AnAppliedPerspective. Minneapolis, MN: West Publishing Co.
21.
Fry, R. ( 2007) `The lifestyle of Japanese sojourn parents and their children in the UK — an empirical study'. Unpublished paper
22.
Goodman, R. (1990) Japan's International Youth. London: Oxford University Press.
23.
Gullahorn, J.T. . and Gullahorn, J.E. (1963) `An extension of the U-curve hypothesis'. Journal of Social Issues19(3): 33—47.
24.
Hayden, M.C. and Thompson, J.J. (1995) `International schools and international education: a relationship reviewed'. Oxford Review of Education21(3): 327—45.
25.
Hayden, M.C. and Thompson, J.J. (1997) `Student perspectives on international education: a European dimension'. Oxford Review of Education23(4): 459—78.
26.
Hayden, M.C. and Wong, C.S.D. (1997) `The International Baccalaureate: international education and cultural preservation'. Educational Studies23(3): 349—61.
27.
Hofstede, G. . (1991) Cultures and Organizations — Software of the Mind: London: McGraw-Hill.
28.
Horoiwa, N. (1987) `Kaigai seicho nihonjin no tekioniokeru naibu katto ' [`Internal struggles of Japanese children who grew up abroad ']. Intercultural Education1: 67—81.
29.
Inamura, H. (1980) Nihonjin no Kaigaifutekio [Japanese Maladjustment to Overseas]. Tokyo: Nihon Hoso Shuppan Kyokai.
30.
Joes (1971) Kaigaishijo Kyoiku Shinkozaidan no Jigyo Keikaku [Operational Plan for Education for Kaigaishijo Foundation] Kaigaishijo Kyoiku. 1: 2—3.
31.
Joes (1981) Kako kara Mirai e (From Past to Future) Kaigaishijo Kyoiku100: 31—74.
32.
Joes (1987) Kikokushijo to Shushoku Part 2 [Returnees and Employment Part 2] Kaigaishijo Kyoiku12: 30—9.
33.
Joes, ed. (1991) Kaigaishijo Kyoiku-shi [History of Kaigaishijo]. Tokyo : Kaigai Shijo Kyoiku Zaidan.
34.
Joes (1995) Kikoku Nyushitte Nani? [What Is a Returnee Entrance Examination?]. Kaigaishijo Kyoiku12: 21—7.
Kim,Y.Y.( 1988)Communication and Cross-Cultural Adaptation. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters Ltd.
41.
Kitsuse,J.I.,Murase,A.E.,ETAL.( 1984)`Kikokushijo: The Emergence and Institutionalization of an Educational Problem in Japan', in Schneider, J.W. and Kitsuse, J.I. (ed.) Studies in the sociology of social problems. New Jersey , USA.: Alex Publishing Corporation.
42.
Kobayashi,T.,ED.(1983)Ibunkani Sodatsu Kodomotachi [Children who Grow Upin Different Cultures ]. Tokyo, Yuhikaku.
43.
Maher,J.C.ANDMacdonald,G. ,EDS(1995)Diversityin Japanese Culture and Language. New York: Kegan Paul.
44.
Mcfee, M. (1968) `The 150% Man, a Product of Blackfeet Acculturation' . American Anthropologist70: 1096—107.
45.
Ministry Of Education, ed. (1987) Monbu Jiho [The Ministry of Education Review]. Tokyo: Gyosei Co Ltd.
46.
Ministry Of Education (Mext) (2003) Zaigai Kyoiku Shisetsu no Gaiyo [Overview of Overseas Japanese Educational Organisations]. Available at: http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/clarinet/sijo22.html (accessed 16 October 2004 ).
47.
Ministryofeducation,Culture,Sports,Scienceandtechnology (2004) Heisei 17nendo Kokkoritsu Shiritsu Daigaku Tankidaigaku Nyugakusha Sembatsu Jisshijyoko no Gaiyo.. Tokyo: Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.
Miyachi, S. (1990) Kikokushijo [Returnees]. Tokyo: Chuokoron-sha. Miyahara, O. (1998) Kokusaijin wo Sodateru [Cultivating International People]. Tokyo: Gyosei Co Ltd.
50.
Noguchi, M.G. (2001) `Bilinguality and bicultural children in Japan: a pilot survey of factors linked to active English-Japanese bilingualism', in M.G. Noguchi and S. Fotos (eds) Studies in Japanese Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
51.
Oberg, K. (1954) Culture Shock. Available at: http://www.smcm.edu/academics/internationaled/pdf/cultureshockarticle.pdf (accessed 27 December 2004).
52.
Ono, H. ( 1994) Bilingual no Kagaku [Science of Bilingual ]. Tokyo: Kodansha,.
53.
Osawa, C. (1986) Tatta Hitotsu no Aoi Sora [The Only Blue Sky]. Tokyo: Bungei Shinju .
54.
Oxford university press,ed.(1998) TheNewOxfordDictionaryofEnglish.Oxford: Clarendon Press.
55.
Oyama, T. (2001) `America no Kikokushijo' [`American returnees']. JOES344(October): 4—18.
56.
Padilla,A.M.ANDPerezw.(2003) `Acculturation,socialidentity,andsocial cognition: a new perspective'. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences25(1): 35—55.
Phinney,J.S.ANDDevich-Navarro,M.( 1997)`Variationsinbicultural identification among African American and Mexican American adolescents'. Journal of Research on Adolescence7: 3—32.
60.
Pollock,D.C.ANDVanreken,R.E.( 1999)ThirdCultureKids.London: Nicholas Brealey.
61.
Salih, R. (2002) `Shifting meanings of ``home'': consumption and identity in Moroccan women's transnational practices between Italy and Morocco ', in N. Al-Ali and K. Koser (eds) New Approaches to Migration? Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home. London: Routledge.
62.
Sato, G. (1997) Kaigaishijo Kikokushijo Kyoiku no Saikouchiku [Restructuring Education for Kaigaishijo and Kikokushijo]. Tokyo: Tamagawa Daigaku Shuppan-bu.
63.
Sato, M. (1999) Bilingual Japanese. Tokyo: Jinbun Shoin.
64.
Saunders, G. (1982) Bilingual Children: Guidance for the Family. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
65.
Skelton, T. AND Allen, T. , eds (1999) Culture and Global Change. London: Routledge.
66.
Smith, C.D. (1991) The Absentee American. New York : Praeger Publishers.
67.
Smith, H.L. (1999) `Bilingualism and bilingual education: the child's perspective'. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism2: 268—81.
68.
Stonequist, E.V. (1937) The Marginal Man: A Study in Personality and Culture Conflict. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
69.
Taft, R. (1977) `Coping with Unfamiliar Cultures', in N. Warren (ed.) Studies in Cross-cultural Psychology. New York: Academic Press .
70.
Useem, J. (1963) `The community of man: a study in the third culture' . Centennial Review7: 481—98.
71.
Useem, J. AND Useem, R.H. (1993) `Third culture kids: focus of major study'. NewsLinksXII(3).
72.
Useem,J.,Useem,R.H.,ETAL.( 1963)`Men in the middle of the third culture: the roles of American and non-Western people in cross-cultural administration'. Human Organization22: 169—79.
73.
Useem,R.H.ANDCottrell,A.B.( 1999)TCKs Four Times More Likely to Earn Bachelor's Degrees . Available at: http://www.tckworld.com/useem/art2.html (accessed 28 October 2001).
74.
Vogel,E.F.( 1980)Japanas No.1: Lessons for Americans. Tokyo:CharlesE.Tuttle Co.
75.
Wagner,R.( 1975)TheInventionofCulture.Chicago,IL: University of Chicago Press.
White, M. (1988) The Japanese Overseas. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
78.
Willis, D.B. (1992) `A search for transnational culture: an ethnography of students in an international school in Japan Part I'. International Schools Journal23(Spring): 9—25.
79.
Yashiro, K. (1995) `Japan's returnees'. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development16: 139—64.
80.
Yasufuku, E. (1994) `Kaigaikankoryoko de ishikihenkaku wa okorunoka ' [`Does overseas travel change one's perception?']. L'esprit D'aujourd'hui (gendai no esupuri)322: 135—44.
81.
Yoshino, K. (1997) Bunka Nationalism no Shakaigaku [ Cultural Nationalism Sociology] Nagoya: Nagoya Daigaku Shuppan-kai.
