In planning theory, four discourses frame collective decisions about land allocation: market, rational-comprehensive, participation, and resistance. Ideally, these discourses should function as a system of checks and balances in which each one limits the potential failings of the others. The case of Bogotá, Colombia shows that instead of balancing each other, these discourses collude into ‘land entrepreneurialism’, a dynamic that privatizes the benefits of city growth and socializes its costs creating a pattern of scarcity of urban services and incentivizing informal settlements. In this framework, informality is a system of co-optation that neutralizes the resistance of the poor through ‘pirate subdivisions’, which are, in fact, ‘the privatization of squatting’. Because land entrepreneurialism is engendered in the institution of property as a natural right and the power relations that it produces, addressing informality entails more than its ‘formalization’. It entails the creation of a new type of formality based on a broader notion of property rights.
AbramoP (2003) ‘La teoría económica de la favela: cuatro notas sobre la localización residencial de los pobres y el mercado inmobiliario informal’ [The economic theory of the favela: four notes about residential location and informal real estate markets]. Ciudad y Territorios: Estudios territoriales35(136–137): 273–294. Also available at http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/135789/M302-PedroAbramo-TeoriaFavela-Guatemala2004.pdf
2.
AbramoP (2006) La Ciudad Caleidoscópica: Una Visión Heterodoxa de la Economía Urbana [The kaleidoscopic city: a heterodox vision of the urban economy]. Spain: Netbiblo.
AlfonsoOHatayaNJaramilloS (1997) Organización Popular y Desarrollo Urbano en Bogotá [Popular organization and urban development in Bogotá]. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia.
5.
AmatoP (1968) An Analysis of the Changing Patterns of Elite Residential Areas in Bogotá, Colombia. PhD dissertation, Department of City and Regional Planning. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.
6.
AmatoP (1969) Population densities, land values and socioeconomic class in Bogotá, Colombia. Land Economics45(1): 66–73.
7.
AristizabalNOrtizA (2002) Are services more important than titles in Bogotá? In PayneG (ed.) Land, Rights and Innovation: Improving Tenure for the Urban Poor. London: ITDG Publishing, 100–13.
8.
BaumH (1994) Community and consensus: reality and fantasy in planning. Journal of Planning Education and Research13: 251–62.
9.
Bogota cómo vamos (2005) Pobreza y Distribución del Ingreso en Bogotá [Poverty and income distribution in Bogotá] (Proyecto Bogotá cómo vamos, Bogotá).
10.
BorreroOMoralesC (2007) Impacts of regulations on undeveloped land prices. A case study of Bogotá. Land Lines19(4): 14–19.
11.
BrownJSmolkaM (1997) Capturing public value from public investment. in BrownJ (ed.) Land Use and Taxation: Applying the Insights of Henry George. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 17–32.
DavidoffP (1965) Advocacy and pluralism in planning. Journal of the American Institute of Planners31(4): 544–55.
17.
DavisM (2006) Planet of Slums. New York: Verso.
18.
De SotoH (1989) The Other Path: The Economic Answer to Terrorism. New York: Basic Books.
19.
De SotoH (2000) The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else. New York: Basic Books.
20.
Del CastilloJ (2003) Bogotá: El Tránsito a la Ciudad Moderna 1920–1950 [Bogotá: the transition to a modern city 1920–1950]. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
DoebeleW (1977) The private market and low-income urbanization in developing countries: the ‘pirate’ subdivisions of Bogotá. The American Journal of Comparative Law25: 531–64.
23.
DoebeleW (1998) The recovery of ‘socially created’ land values in Colombia. Land Lines10(4): 5–7.
24.
El Tiempo (2008) Tres proyectos de vivienda estrato 6, en lios por licencias irregulares [Three housing projects stratum 6, in trouble for irregular licenses], 17June, p.1–14.
25.
EverettM (1999) Evictions and human rights: an ethnographic study of development and land disputes in Bogotá, Colombia. Working Paper. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/PubDetail.aspx?pubid=747
26.
FainsteinS (2000) New directions in planning theory. Urban Affairs Review35(4): 451–78.
27.
FajardoD (1994) La colonización de la frontera agraria Colombiana [The colonization of the agrarian frontier in Colombia]. In Ministerio Colombiano de Agricultura (ed.) El Agro y la Cuestión Social [Agriculture and the social question]. Bogotá: Tercer Mundo Editores.
28.
FEDELONJAS (2007) El proceso de aplicación de la Ley 388 de 1997 [The implementation process of Law 388 of 1997]. Presentation at Seminario 10 años de la ley 388 de 1997 [Seminar 10 years of the Law 388 of 1997]. Congreso de la República de Colombia. http://www.territorioysuelo.org/eventos.shtml?x=20156177
29.
FernandesE (1997) Access to urban land and housing in Brazil: three degrees of illegality. Working Paper. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Available at http://66.223.94.76/pubs/PubDetail.aspx?pubid=130.
30.
FernandesEMaldonadoM (2009) Law and land policy in Latin America: shifting paradigms and possibilities for action. Land Lines21(3): 14–19.
31.
FlyvbergB (2003) Rationality and power. In FainsteinSCampbelS (eds) Readings in Planning Theory l. Oxford: Blackwell, 318–29.
32.
FoglesongR (1986) Planning the Capitalist City: the Colonial Era to the 1920s. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
33.
ForesterJ (1999) The Deliberative Practitioner: Encouraging Participatory Planning Processes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
34.
FrugG (1999) City Making: Building Communities without Building Walls. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
35.
GilbertA (1981) Pirates and invaders: land acquisition in urban Colombia and Venezuela. World Development9(1): 657–78.
36.
GilbertA (1990) The provision of public services and the debt crisis in Latin America: the case of Bogotá. Economic Geography66(4): 349–61.
GilbertA (1998) The Latin American City. London: LAB.
39.
GilbertA (1999) A home is for ever? Residential mobility and homeownership in self-help settlements. Environment and Planning A31(6): 1073–91.
40.
GilbertA (2000) Financing self-help housing: evidence from Bogotá, Colombia. International Planning Studies5(2): 165–90.
41.
GilbertA (2006) Good urban governance: evidence from a model city?Bulletin of Latin American Research25(3): 392–419.
42.
GilbertA (2007) Water for all: how to combine public management with commercial practice for the benefit of the poor?Urban Studies44(8): 1559–79.
43.
GilbertAWardP (1982) Low-income housing and the State. In Urbanization in GilbertAHardoyJRamirezR (eds) Contemporary Latin America: Critical Approaches to the Analysis of Urban Issues. USA: John Wiley and Sons, 79–128.
44.
GilbertAWardP (1985) Housing, the State and the Poor: Policy and Practice in Three Latin American Cities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
45.
HartK (2006) Bureaucratic form and the informal economy. In Guha-KhasnobisBKanburROstromE (eds) Linking the Formal and Informal Economy: Concepts and Policies. New York: Oxford University Press, 21–35.
46.
HealeyP (1996) The communicative turn in planning theory and its implications for spatial strategy formation. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design23: 217–34.
47.
HefetzAWarnerM (2007) Beyond the market versus planning dichotomy: understanding privatization and its reverse in U.S. cities. Local Government Studies33(4): 555–72.
48.
HolstonJ (2009) Dangerous spaces of citizenship: gang talk, rights talk and rule of law in Brazil. Planning Theory8(1): 12–31.
49.
HRCR (2010) Declaration of the rights of the man and of the citizen. Human and Constitutional Rights Resource Page. Available at http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html
50.
JacobsJ (1961) The Death and Life of Great American Cities. NewYork: Random House.
51.
JacobsH (2004) The future of an American ideal. In JacobH (ed.) Private Property the 21st Century: the Future of an American Ideal. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.
52.
JacobsH (2008) The future of the regulatory takings issue in the United States and Europe: divergence of convergence?The Urban Lawyer40(1): 51–72.
53.
JaramilloS (1980) Producción de Vivienda y Capitalismo Dependiente: el Caso de Bogotá [Housing production and dependent capitalism: the case of Bogotá]. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.
54.
JaramilloS (1994) Hacia una Teoría de la Renta del Suelo Urbano [Towards a theory of urban land rent]. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.
55.
JaramilloS (1999) El papel del mercado del suelo en la configuración de algunos rasgos socio-espaciales de las ciudades latinoamericanas [The role of land markets in the socio-spatial configuration of Latin American cities]. Revista Territorios2: 107–29.
56.
Jaramillo UribeJ (1994) La economía del virreinato 1740–1810 [The economy of the viceroyalty 1740–1810]. In OcampoJ (ed.) Historia Económica de Colombia [Colombian Economic History]. Bogotá: Tercer Mundo Editores, 49–86.
57.
KrueckebergD (1995) The difficult character of property: to whom do things belong?Journal of the American Planning Association61(3): 301–09.
58.
KrueckebergD (2004) The lessons of John Locke or Hernando de Soto: what if your dreams come true?Housing Policy Debate15(1): 1–24.
59.
LeGrandC (1986) Frontier Expansion and Peasant Protest in Colombia 1830–1936. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press.
60.
LindblomC (1959) The science of ‘muddling through’. Public Administration Review19: 79–88.
61.
LomnitzLDiazR (1993) Cultural grammar and bureaucratic rationalization in Latin American cities. In MorseRHardoyJ (ed.) Rethinking the Latin American City. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 179–92.
62.
LONJA (2005) Valor del Suelo Urbano en Bogotá [Urban land values in Bogotá], Lonja de Propiedad Raíz de Bogotá [Bogotá’s Real Estate Association]. Bogotá: Sello Editorial Lonja.
LulleT (2005) La participación ciudadana en la gestión local. Lecciones de una experiencia de control fiscal cívico en Bogotá [Citizen participation in public management. Lessons from a civic fiscal control experience in Bogotá]. In GouesetVCuervoLLulleTCoingH (eds) Hacer Metrópolis: la Región Urbana de Bogotá de Cara al Siglo XIX [Making metropolis: Bogotá’s Urban Region facing the 21st century]. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia, 105–34.
65.
MaldonadoA (2000) Descentralización en países en desarrollo: la experiencia de Colombia [Decentralization in developing countries: the Colombian case]. In Proceedings of the National Conference La investigación sobre lo regional, lo municipal y el ordenamiento territorial [Research in regional, municipal and territorial planning]. Bogotá: Cider.
66.
MaldonadoM (1999) Ordenamiento jurídico y ordenamiento urbano [Urban law and urban planning]. Revista Territorios2: 25–52.
67.
MaldonadoM (2001) La propiedad en la constitución colombiana de 1991: superando la tradición del código Civil [Property rights in the Colombian Constitution of 1991: beyond the Civil Code tradition]. Paper presented at the Conference La Nación multicultural [The multicultural nation]. Bogotá. Available at http://www.territorioysuelo.org/documentos.shtml?x=11389537
68.
MaldonadoM (2003) Referentes teóricos, filosóficos y políticos de las normas constitucionales y legales en materia de ordenamiento territorial y planeación urbana, medio ambiente y servicios públicos en Colombia [Theoretical, philosophical and political referents of constitutional and legal norms in land use and urban planning, environment, and public services in Colombia]. Final report, Colciencias and Universidad de los Andes. Available at http://www.territorioysuelo.org/documentos.shtml?x=11389538
69.
MaldonadoM (2006) El proceso de construcción del sistema urbanístico Colombiano: entre reforma urbana y ordenamiento territorial [The development of the Colombian planning system: between urban reform and territorial planning]. In FernandesEAlfonsinB (eds) Direito Urbanístico: Estudos Brasileiros e Internacionais [Urban law: Brazilian and international studies]. Belo Horizonte: Del Rey, 25–58. Available at http://www.territorioysuelo.org/documentos.shtml?x=11389534
70.
MeloJ (1994) Las vicisitudes del modelo liberal 1850–1899 [The ups and downs of the liberal model 1850–1899]. In OcampoJ (ed.) Historia económica de Colombia [Colombian Economic History]. Bogotá: Tercer Mundo Editores, 119–72.
71.
MiraftabF (2009) Insurgent planning: situating radical planning in the global south. Planning Theory8(1): 32–50.
72.
MiraftabFWillsS (2005) Insurgency and spaces of active citizenship: the story of Western Cape anti-eviction campaign in South Africa. Journal of Planning Education and Research25: 200–17.
73.
MohanR (1994) Understanding the Developing Metropolis: Lessons from the City Study of Bogotá and Cali, Colombia. Washington, DC: World Bank.
74.
MolinaH (1990) Bogotá: competition and substitution between urban land markets. In BaróssPvan der LindenJ (eds) The Transformation of Land Supply Systems in Third World Cities. Aldershot: Avebury, 295–307.
75.
MolinaH (2001) Bogotá, la Ocupación del Suelo a Largo Plazo: Un Modelo Simple de Simulación [Long term land occupacion in Bogotá: a simple simulation model]. In AlfonsoO (ed.) Ciudad y Region en Colombia: Nueve Ensayos de Análisis Socioeconómico y Espacial [City and Region in Colombia: Nine Spatial and Socioeconomic Analysis Essays]. Bogotá: Universidad Externado, Bogotá, 269–355.
76.
OcampoJBernalJAvellaMErrazurizM (1994) La consolidación del capitalismo moderno [Modern capitalism consolidation]. In OcampoJ (ed.) Historia económica de Colombia [Colombian Economic History]. Bogotá: Tercer Mundo Editores, 243–334.
77.
PeattieL (1982) Settlement upgrading: planning and squatter settlements in Bogotá, Colombia. Journal of Planning Education and Research2: 27–36.
78.
PortesACastellsM (1989) World underneath: the origins, dynamics, and effects of the informal economy. In PortesACastellsMBentonL (eds) The Informal Economy: Studies in Advanced and Less Developed Countries. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 11–40.
79.
RincónP (2006) Bogotá y Sus Modalidades de Ocupación del Suelo: Análisis de los Procesos de Re-Densificación [Bogotá and its patterns of land use: analysis of the processes of re-densification]. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
80.
RobledoJ (1985) El Drama de la Vivienda en Colombia y la Política del ‘Sí Se Puede’. [The housing drama in Colombia and the policy of ‘yes, we can’]. Bogotá: El Ancora Editores.
81.
RochaRJaramilloSTovarJGarcíaLSalazarLSaboyaO (2006) Informalidad de la vivienda y el suelo en Bucaramanga y Cartagena [Housing and land informality in Bucaramanga and Cartagena]. Working Paper. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes. Available at http://economia.uniandes.edu.co/var/rw/archivos/cede/documentos/d2006-42.pdf.
82.
RodaP (2000) Análisis de eficiencia del gasto público en vivienda’ [Efficiency analysis of the public expenditure in housing]. In FainboimIGandourMUribeM (eds) Provisión de Vías, Transporte y Servicios Públicos [Road, Transportation and Public Service Provision]. Bogotá: Secretaría de Hacienda Distrital, 1–59.
83.
RoldánM (2002) Blood and Fire. La Violencia in Antioquia, Colombia, 1946–1953. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
84.
RoyA (2009) Why India cannot plan its cities: informality, insurgence and the idiom of urbanization. Planning Theory8(1): 76–87.
85.
SagerT (2002) Deliberative planning and decision making: an impossibility result. Journal of Planning Education and Research21: 367–378.
86.
SaldarriagaA (1996) Estado, Ciudad y Vivienda: Urbanismo y Arquitectura de la Vivienda Estatal en Colombia 1918–1990 [State, City and Housing: Urbanism and Architecture of Public Housing in Colombia 1918–1990]. Bogotá: INURBE.
87.
SandercockL (2003) Cosmopolis II, London: Continuum.
88.
SDP (2000) Estadísticas Históricas de Santa Fe de Bogotá D.C. 1950–1999 [Historical Statistics of Bogotá 1950–1999]. Secretaría Distrital de Planeación [Bogotá’s Planning Department]. Bogotá: SDP.
89.
SDP (2007) Informe de Legalización de Barrios [Report on neighborhood legalization]. Secretaría Distrital de Planeación [Bogotá’s Planning Department].
SmolkaM (2003) Informality, urban poverty and land market prices. Land Lines15(1): 4–7.
94.
SmolkaMAmborskiD (2000) Value capture for urban development: an inter-american comparison. Working Paper WP00MS1. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Available at http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/PubDetail.aspx?pubid=1279.
UribeMBejaranoJ (2008) Annotated bibliography on property tax in Latin America. Working Paper WP09MU1. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
101.
VernezG (1974) Residential movements of low-income families: the case of Bogotá, Colombia. Land Economics50(4): 421–28.
WarnerM (2008) ‘Reversing privatization, rebalancing government reform: markets, deliberation and planning. Policy and Society27(2): 163–74.
104.
WarnerM (2009) ‘Regulatory takings and Free Trade Agreements: implications for planners. The Urban Lawyer41(3): 427–43.
105.
WarnerMGerbasiJ (2004) Rescaling and reforming the state under NAFTA: implications for sub national Authority. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research28(4): 858–73.
106.
WebsterCLaiL (2003) Property Rights, Planning and Markets: Managing Spontaneous Cities. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.
107.
YiftachelO (2009) Theoretical notes on ‘gray cities’: the coming of urban apartheid? Planning Theory8(1): 88–100.
