The present study examined a six-component theoretical model of word reading acquisition in 449 Spanish-speaking children from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Measures of phonological awareness (PA), rapid automatized naming (RAN), vocabulary, letter name-sound knowledge, and parent education were obtained at the beginning of kindergarten and a measure of word reading at the end of grade 1. A path analysis was applied to test specific hypotheses. The approach revealed a conditional dependence structure between the components as follows: (1) vocabulary depends on parent education; (2) PA depends on vocabulary; (3) letter name-sound knowledge depends on PA; (4) letter name-sound knowledge explained 76% of the variance in word reading; (5) vocabulary indirectly influences word reading through PA and letter name-sound knowledge. Plausible interpretations of the results regarding early reading acquisition among children from low socioeconomic backgrounds are discussed.
Al OtaibaSKosanovichMLTorgesenJK (2012) Assessment and instruction for phonemic awareness and word recognition skills. In: KamhiAGCattsHW (eds), Language and Reading Disabilities. New York, NY: Pearson, 112–140.
2.
AndersonRCFreebodyP (1981) Vocabulary knowledge. In: GuthrieJT (ed), Comprehension and Teaching: Research Reviews. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 77–117.
3.
Arán FilippettiV (2012) Estrato socioeconómico y habilidades cognitivas en niños escolarizados: variables predictoras y mediadoras. [Socioeconomic status and cognitive skills in school children: predictors and mediators variables]. Psykhe: Revista de la Escuela de Psicología21(1): 3–20.
4.
AraújoSReisAPeterssonKM, et al. (2015) Rapid automatized naming and reading performance: a meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology107(3): 868–883.
ArrúeJSteinARosembergC (2012) Las situaciones de alfabetización temprana en hogares de dos grupos sociales de Argentina. [Early literacy development situations in two different social groups in Argentina]. Revista de Psicología8(16): 25–44.
7.
BeckILMcKeownMGKucanL (2013) Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction. New York: Guilford Press.
8.
BerningerVWAbbotRDNagyW, et al. (2010) Growth in phonological, orthographic, and morphological awareness in grades 1–6. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research39: 141–163.
9.
BiemillerA (2012) Teaching vocabulary in the primary grades: vocabulary instruction needed. In: Kame’enuiAJBaumannJF (eds), Vocabulary Instruction Research to Practice. Second Edition. NY: The Guildford Press, 34–50.
10.
BornsteinMHHahnCSSuwalskyJTD, et al. (2003) Socioeconomic Status, Parenting and Child Development: The Hollingshead Four-Factor Index of Social Status and the Socioeconomic Index of Occupations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 29–82.
11.
BorzoneARosembergCDiukB, et al. (2005) Aprender a leer y a escribir en contextos de pobreza [Learning to read and write in poverty contexts]. Lingüística en el aula9: 7–28.
12.
BowersPGWolfM (1993) Theoretical links among naming speed, precise timing mechanisms, and orthographic skill in dyslexia. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal5(1): 69–85.
13.
CabellSJusticeLLoganJ, et al. (2013) Emergent literacy profiles among prekindergarten children from low-SES backgrounds: longitudinal considerations. Early Childhood Research Quarterly28: 608–620.
14.
CainK (2016, spring) Reading comprehension development and difficulties: an overview. Perspectives on Language and Literacy42(2): 9–16.
15.
CanalesYPortaME (2018) Un estudio comparativo sobre el nivel de habilidades lingüísticas en niños de 4 y 5 años de escuelas urbano-marginales [A comparative study on the level of linguistic skills in 4- and 5- year old children from urban-marginal schools]. Psico/Pedagógica10(13): 117–151.
16.
CaravolasMLervagAMikulajováM, et al. (2019) Longitudinal study of the foundations of decoding and reading comprehension ability. Scientific Studies of Reading23(5): 386–402.
17.
CaravolasMLervågAMousikouP, et al. (2012) Common patterns of prediction of literacy development in different alphabetic orthographies. Psychological Science23(6): 678–686.
18.
Cardoso-MartinsCMesquitaTCEhriL (2011) Letter names and phonological awareness help children to learn letter-sound relations. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology109(1): 25–38. DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2010.12.006.
19.
CattsHWFeyMEZhangX, et al. (2001) Estimating the risk of future reading difficulties in kindergarten children: a research-based model and its clinical implementation. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools32: 38–50.
20.
ChenRVellutinoF (1997) Prediction of reading ability: a cross-validation study of the simple view of reading. Journal of Literacy Research29(1): 1–24.
21.
ChowBHoCWongS, et al. (2017) Home environmental influences on children's language and reading skills in a genetically sensitive design: Are socioeconomic status and home literacy environment environmental mediators and moderators?Scandinavian Journal of Psychology58(6): 519–529.
22.
CohenJ (1992) A power primer. Psychological Bulletin112(1): 155–159.
23.
ColéPCavalliEDuncanL, et al. (2018) What is the influence of morphological knowledge in the early stages of reading acquisition among low ses children? a graphical modeling approach. Frontiers in Psychology9: 547.
24.
ColtheartMRastleKPerryC, et al. (2001) DRC: a dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review108(1): 204–256. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.108.1.204.
25.
Compton-LillyCRogersREllisonT (2020) A meta-ethnography of family literacy scholarship: ways with metaphors and silence. Reading Research Quarterly55: 1–19.
26.
CunninghamAJCarrollJM (2015) Early predictors of phonological and morphological awareness and the link with reading: evidence from children with different patterns of the early deficit. Applied Psycholinguistics36(03): 509–531. DOI: 10.1017/S0142716413000295.
27.
CurentonSMJusticeLM (2008) Children’s preliteracy skills: influence of mothers’ education and beliefs about shared-reading interactions. Early Education and Development19: 261–283.
28.
DearingEKreiderHSimpkinsS, et al. (2006) Family involvement in school and low-income children’s literacy: longitudinal associations between and within families. Journal of Educational Psychology98(4): 653–664. DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.4.653.
29.
DickinsonDKMcCabeAAnastasopoulosL, et al. (2003) The comprehensive language approach to early literacy: the interrelationships among vocabulary, phonological sensitivity, and print knowledge among preschool-aged children. Journal of Educational Psychology95(3): 465–481.
30.
DickinsonDTaborsP (2001) Beginning Literacy with Language. Baltimore, MD: Paul. H. Brookes.
31.
DiukBBorzoneAMLedesmaR (2010) Conocimiento de vocabulario, representaciones fonológicas y sensibilidad fonológica en niños pequeños de distinto sector social de procedencia [Vocabulario knowlege, phonological representations and phonologica sensitivity in young children from different social contexts]. SUMA Psicológica7(1): 33–50.
32.
DoleanDMelby-LervågMTincasI, et al. (2019) Achievement gap: socioeconomic status affects reading development beyond language and cognition in children facing poverty. Learning, and Instruction63: e0101218. DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.101218.
33.
DongYWuSX-YDongW-Y, et al. (2020) The effects of home literacy environment on children’s reading comprehension development: a meta-analysis. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice20(2): 63–82. DOI: 10.12738/jestp.2020.2.005.
34.
DunnLMPadillaELugoD, et al. (1986) Test de Vocabulario en Imágenes Peabody: Adaptación Hispano-Americana [Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test- Latin American adaptation]. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
35.
EhriLC (1998) Grapheme-phoneme knowledge is essential for learning to read words in English. In: MetsalaJLEhriEC (eds), Word Recognition in Beginning Literacy. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 3–40.
36.
EhriLC (2005) Learning to read words: theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading9(2): 167–188. DOI: 10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4.
37.
FoormanBRKoonSPetscherY, et al. (2015) Examining general and specific factors in the dimensionality of oral language and reading in 4th–10th grades. Journal of Educational Psychology107(3): 884–899. DOI: 10.1037/edu0000026.
38.
FungWKChungKK (2020) The role of socioeconomic status in Chinese word reading and writing among Chinese kindergarten children. Reading and Writing33: 377–397. DOI: 10.1007/s11145-019-09967-2.
39.
GarcíaJRCainK (2014) Decoding and reading comprehension: a meta-analysis to identify which reader and assessment characteristics influence the strength of the relationship in English. Review of Educational Research84(1): 74–111. DOI: 10.3102/0034654313499616.
40.
GentazESprenger-CharollesLy TheurelA (2015) Differences in the predictors of reading comprehension in first graders from low socio-economic status families with either good or poor decoding skills. Plos One10(3): e0119581. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0119581.
41.
GentazESprenger-CharollesLTheurelA, et al. (2013) Reading comprehension in a large cohort of french first graders from low socio-economic status families: a 7-month longitudinal study. Plos One8(11): e78608. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078608.
42.
GutiérrezKRogoffB (2003) Cultural ways of learning. Individual traits or repertoires of practice. Educational Researcher32(5): 19–25.
43.
HartBRisleyTR (1995) Meaningful Differences in the Everyday Experience of Young American Children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
44.
HartBRisleyTR (2003) The Early Catastrophe: the 30 Million Word Gap by Age 3. American Educator27: 4–9.
45.
HemphillLTerrenceT (2008) The importance of early vocabulary for literacy achievement in high-poverty schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk13(4): 426–451.
46.
HiebertECioffiGAntonakR (1984) A developmental sequence in preschool children’s acquisition of reading readiness skills and print awareness concepts. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology5: 115–126.
47.
HindmanAHSkibbeLEMillerA, et al. (2010) Ecological contexts and early learning: contributions of child, family, and classroom factors during head start, to literacy and mathematics growth through first grade. Early Childhood Research Quarterly25(2): 235–250. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.11.003.
48.
HjetlandHNLervågALysterS-AH, et al. (2019) Pathways to reading comprehension: a longitudinal study from 4 to 9 years of age. Journal of Educational Psychology111(5): 751–763.
49.
HoffE (2003) The specificity of environmental influence: socioeconomic status affects early vocabulary development via maternal speech. Child Development74(5): 1368–1378.
50.
HoffE (2013) Interpreting the early language trajectories of children from low SES and language minority homes: implications for closing achievement gaps. Developmental Psychology49: 4–14.
51.
HoffELaursenBTardifT (2002). Socioeconomic status and parenting. In: BornsteinMH (eds), Handbook of Parenting. Secod Edition. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 231–252.
52.
HooverWAGoughPB (1990) The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing2(2): 127–160.
53.
HuLBentlerPM (1995) Evaluating model fit. In: HoyleR (ed), Structural Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues, and Applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 76–99.
54.
Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos [National Institute of Census and Statistics] (2008) Sistema de Estadísticas Sociodemográficas. Área Educación. Definiciones y Conceptos. [Sociodemographic Statistics System. Education area. Definitions and Concepts]. Available at:http://www.indec.com.ar (accessed 10 January 2018).
55.
KimYS (2015) Language and cognitive predictors of text comprehension: evidence from multivariate analysis. Child Development86(1): 128–144. DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12293.
56.
KimYS (2016) Direct and mediated effects of language and cognitive skills on comprehension of oral narrative texts (listening comprehension) for children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology141: 101–120. DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2015.08.003.
57.
KimYSG (2017) Why the simple view of reading is not simplistic: unpacking component skills of reading using a direct and indirect effect model of reading (DIER). Scientific Studies of Reading21(4): 1–24. DOI: 10.1080/10888438.2017.1291643.
58.
KlineRB (2005) Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. Second Edition. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
59.
LanderlKFreudenthalerHHeeneM, et al. (2019) Phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming as longitudinal predictors of reading in five alphabetic orthographies with varying degrees of consistency. Scientific Studies of Reading23(3): 220–234. DOI: 10.1080/10888438.2018.1510936.
60.
LawJMGhesquièreP (2017) Early development and predictors of morphological awareness: disentangling the impact of decoding skills and phonological awareness. Research in Developmental Disabilities17: 47–59. DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.05.003.
61.
LervågAAukrustVG (2010) Vocabulary knowledge is a critical determinant of the difference in reading comprehension growth between first and second language learners. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry51(5): 612–620. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02185.x.
62.
LervågABråtenIHulmeC (2009) The cognitive and linguistic foundations of early reading development: a norwegian latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology45(3): 764–781. DOI: 10.1037/a0014132.
63.
LervågAHulmeC (2009) Rapid automatized naming (RAN) taps a mechanism that places constraints on the development of early reading fluency. Psychological Science20(8): 1040–1048.
64.
LervågAHulmeCMelby-LervagM (2018) Unpicking the developmental relationship between oral language skills and reading comprehension: it’s simple, but complex. Child Development89(5): 1821–1838.
65.
LomaxCMcGeeL (1987) Young children's concepts about print and reading: toward a model of reading acquisition. Reading Research Quarterly22(2): 237–256.
66.
LoniganCJ (2007) Vocabulary development and the development of phonological awareness skills in preschool children. In: WagnerRKMuseAETannenbaumKR (eds), Vocabulary Acquisition: Implications for Reading Comprehension. New York: Guilford, 15–31.
67.
LoniganCJBurgessSRAnthonyJL (2000) Development of emergent literacy and early reading skills in preschool children: evidence from a latent-variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology36(5): 596–613.
68.
López-EscribanoCIvanovaASheterevaK (2018) Rapid automatized naming (RAN) and vocabulary are significant predictors of reading in consisting orthographies: a comparison of reading acquisition procedures in Bulgarian and Spanish. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology16(44): 147–173.
69.
Mancilla-MartinezJyLesauxN (2011) Early home language use and later vocabulary development. Journal of Educational Psychology103(3): 535–546.
70.
Mancilla-MartinezJLesauxNK (2017) Early indicators of later english reading comprehension outcomes among children from Spanish-speaking homes. Scientific Studies of Reading21(5): 428–448.
71.
ManolitsisGGeorgiouGKParrilaR (2011) Revisiting the home literacy model of reading development in an orthographically consistent language. Learning and Instruction21(4): 496–505. DOI: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2010.06.005.
72.
MuterVHulmeCSnowlingMJ, et al. (2004) Phonemes, rimes, vocabulary, and grammatical skills as foundations of early reading development: evidence from a longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology40: 665–681. DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.40.5.665.
73.
NationK (2019) Children’s reading difficulties, language, and reflections on the simple view of reading. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties24(1): 47–73.
74.
National Early Literacy Panel (NELP) (2008) Developing Early Literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
75.
National Institute of Child Health and Development. Early Child Care Research Network (2005) Child Care and Child Development: Results from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. New York: The Guilford Press.
76.
OuelletteGP (2006) What’s meaning got to do with it: the role of vocabulary in word reading and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology98(3): 554. DOI: 10.1037/0022-0663.98.3.554.
77.
OuelletteGBeersA (2010) A not-so-simple view of reading: how oral vocabulary and visual-word recognition complicate the story. Reading and Writing23(2): 189–208.
78.
PortaMECanalesY (2021) Influencia de variables socioambientales en habilidades lingüísticas precursoras de la lectura en nivel inicial [Influence of socioenvarionmental variables on linguistics precursors of reading]. In: Alarcón NeveLJHess ZimmermannK (eds), Desarrollo Lingüístico Tardío en Poblaciones Hispanohablantes. Méjico: Comunicación Científica, 21–49.
79.
PortaMERamírezG (2019a) The impact of an early intervention on vocabulary, phonological awareness, and letter–sound knowledge among Spanish-speaking kindergarteners. International Journal of School and Educational Psychology8: 1–15.
80.
PortaMERamirezG (2019b) Efectos de un programa de intervención en vocabulario, conciencia morfológica y fonológica en niños de Jardín de infantes en lectura en grado 1. [Effects of a vocabulary, morphological and phonological awareness intervention program in kindergarten children on grade 1 reading achievement. Revista de Orientación Educacional33: 44–55.
81.
ProtopapasAMouzakiASideridisGD, et al. (2013) The role of vocabulary in the context of the simple view of reading. Reading & Writing Quarterly29(2): 168–202. DOI: 10.1080/10573569.2013.758569.
82.
QuinnJMWagnerRK (2018) Using meta-analytic structural equation modeling to study developmental change in relations between language and literacy. Child Development89(6): 1956–1969. DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13049.
83.
QuinnJMWagnerRKPetscherY, et al. (2015) Developmental relations between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension: a latent change score modeling study. Child Development86(1): 159–175. DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12292.
84.
RamirezGWaltonPRobertsW (2013) Morphological awareness and vocabulary development among kindergarteners with different ability levels. Journal of Learning Disabilities47(1): 54–64. DOI: 10.1177/0022219413509970.
85.
RosembergCSteinA (2009) Vocabulario y alfabetización temprana. Un estudio del entorno lingüístico de poblaciones urbano-marginadas. [Early literacy and vocabulary. A study of the linguistic environment of poor urban populations]. In: RichaudMCMorenoJE (eds), Investigaciones en Ciencias del Comportamiento. Buenos Aires: CIIPME.CONICET. 517–541.
86.
SchadyN (2012) El desarrollo infantil temprano en América Latina y el Caribe: acceso, resultados y evidencia longitudinal de ecuador [Early childhood development in Latin America and the Caribbean: access, results and longitudinal evidence from ecuador]. In: CabrolMSzékelyM (eds), Educación para la Transformación (53–92). Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank.
87.
SchadyNBehrmanJAraujoMC, et al. (2015) Wealth gradients in early childhood cognitive development in five Latin American countries. Journal of Human Resources50(2): 446–463.
88.
SchreiberJBStageFKKingJ, et al. (2006) Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: a review. Journal of Educational Research99(6): 323–338.
89.
SénéchalMLeFevreJA (2002) Parental involvement in the development o children’s reading skill: a five-year longitudinal study. Child Development73(2): 445–460.
90.
SénéchalMOuelletteGRodneyD (2006) The misunderstood giant: on the predictive role of early vocabulary to future reading. In: DickinsonDKNeumanSB (eds), Handbook of Early Literacy Research. New York, NY: Guilford, 2, 173–182.
91.
SénéchalMYoungL (2008) The effect of family literacy interventions on children’s acquisition of reading from kindergarten to Grade 3: a meta-analytic review. Review of Educational Research78(4): 880–907.
92.
SignoriniABorzoneA (2003) Aprendizaje de la lectura y escritura en español. El predominio de las estrategias fonológicas [Learning to read and spell in Spanish. The prevalence of phonological strategies]. Interdisciplinaria20(1): 5–30.
93.
SkeboCMLewisBAFreebairnLA, et al. (2013) Reading skills of students with speech sound disorders at three stages of literacy development. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools44(4): 360–373.
94.
SteinARosembergC (2011) Alfabetización temprana en poblaciones urbano- marginadas. La familia como contexto de oportunidades. [Early literacy in poor urban population. The family as a context of opportunities]. Revista IRICE23: 9–22.
95.
StorchSAWhitehurstGJ (2002) Oral language and code-related precursors to reading: evidence from a longitudinal structural model. Developmental Psychology38(6): 934–947.
96.
SuMLiPZhouW, et al. (2021) Effects of socioeconomic status in predicting reading outcomes for children: the mediation of spoken language network. Brain and Cognition147: 105655. DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105655.
97.
TapiaMAguadoGRipollJ (2016). Validation of the Simple View of Reading. In: Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Scientific Studies of Reading, Porto, Portugal, July 2016. doi: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1196.8246.
98.
TobiaVBonifacciP (2015) The simple view of reading in a transparent orthography: the stronger role of oral comprehension. Reading and Writing28, 939–957. DOI: 10.1007/s11145-015-9556-1.
99.
TunmerWEChapmanJW (2012) The simple view of reading redux: vocabulary knowledge and the independent components hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities45(5): 453–466.
100.
UrquijoSGarcía ConiAFernandesD (2015) Relación entre aprendizaje de la lectura y nivel socioeconómico en niños argentinos [Relationship between reading acquisition and SES in Argentinean children]. Avances en Psicología Latinoamericana33(2): 303–318. DOI: 10.12804/apl33.02.2015.09.
101.
Van SteenselRMcElvanyNKurversJ, et al. (2011) How effective are family literacy programs? Results of a meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research81(1): 69–96.
102.
VerhoevenLVan LeeuweJ (2008) Prediction of the development of reading comprehension: a longitudinal study. Applied Cognitive Psychology22(3): 407–423. Doi: 10.1002/acp.1414.
103.
WarmingtonMHulmeC (2012) Phoneme awareness, visual-verbal paired-associate learning, and rapid automatized naming as predictors of individual differences in reading ability. Scientific Studies of Reading16(1): 45–62. DOI: 10.1080/10888438.2010.534832.
104.
WiseJCSevcikRAMorrisRD, et al. (2007) The relationship among receptive and expressive vocabulary, listening comprehension, pre-reading skills, word identification skills, and reading comprehension by children with reading disabilities. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research50(4): 1096–1109.
