Peace activists in Okinawa, Japan, serve as tour guides, or ‘peace guides’, for school excursion tour groups from Japan’s main islands. Their purpose is to encourage the students to learn about the devastating Battle of Okinawa in 1945 and engage in current issues of war and peace. By historically contextualizing the emergence of school excursion and peace guides in Okinawa, and ethnographically portraying the peace guides’ narrative and performative tactics in a natural cave and at a war memorial, the essay demonstrates that the guides attempt to form a spatiotemporal bubble within which the students develop an active learning community with a critical awareness of militarized realities of the past and present.
AllenM. (2003) ‘Wolves at the Back Door: Remembering the Kumejima Massacres’, pp. 39–64 in HeinL.SeldenM. (eds) Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
2.
AniyaM. (1974) ‘Kankō Basu ni Notta! [I Rode a Sightseeing Tour Bus!]’, Okinawa Shichō3 (May): 32–34.
3.
AniyaM.MaedaY.ŌnishiM.KawabataH. (1985) Okinawa no Senseki to Gunji Kichi: Heiwa no tame no Gaidobukku [Battle Ruins and Military Bases in Okinawa: Guidebook for Peace]. Naha: Akebono Shuppan.
4.
AniyaM.ŌtaY.NakayoshiR.ShinzatoK. (1974) ‘Zadankai: Sengoshi to Okinawasen Taiken: Okinawa no Sensō Taiken wo Dō Ikasu ka [Roundtable: Postwar History and the Battle of Okinawa Experience: How to Take Advantage of Okinawa’s War Experience]’, Okinawa Shichō4 (July): 4–18.
ArasakiM.NakasoneM.MaezatoT.NakaojiK.ŌshiroM.YamakadoK.KinjōA.TakamineT. (1983) Kankō Kōsu de nai Okinawa [Okinawa Not on Sightseeing Course]. Tokyo: Kōbunken.
7.
ArashiroY. (2005) ‘Ryūkyū/Okinawa no Heiwa Shisō: “Hibōryoku” no Shiten kara [Peace Philosophy of Ryūkyū/Okinawa: From the “Non-violence” Perspective]’, pp. 33–43 in IshiharaM.NakachiH.LummisC. D. (eds) Okinawa wo Heiwa-gaku suru! [Doing Peace Studies in Okinawa!]. Kyoto: Hōritsu Bunkasha.
8.
Asahi Shinbun Seibu Honsha Shakai-bu (ed.) (1982) Shin Okinawa Hōkoku: Fukki kara 10 nen [Report on New Okinawa: 10 Years Since the Reversion]. Kitakyūshū: Asahi Shinbun Seibu Honsha.
9.
AshworthG.HartmannR. (2005) ‘Introduction: Managing Atrocity for Tourism’, pp. 1–14 in AshworthG.HartmannR. (eds) Horror and Human Tragedy Revisited: The Management of Sites of Atrocities for Tourism. New York: Cognizant Communication.
10.
BadoneE.RosemanS. R. (2004) Intersecting Journeys: The Anthropology of Pilgrimage and Tourism. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
11.
BhabhaH. (1994) The Location of Culture. New York: Routledge.
12.
BhattacharyyaD. P. (1997) ‘Mediating India: An Analysis of a Guidebook’, Annals of Tourism Research24(2): 371–389.
13.
BowmanG. (1991) ‘The Politics of Tour Guiding: Israeli and Palestinian Guides in Israel and the Occupied Territories’, pp. 121–134 in HarrisonD. (ed.) Tourism and the Less-Developed Countries. London: Belhaven Press.
14.
BowmanM. S.PezzulloP. C. (2010) ‘What’s So “Dark” about “Dark Tourism”?: Death, Tours, and Performance’, Tourist Studies9(3): 187–202.
15.
BrinE. (2006) ‘Politially-Oriented Tourism in Jerusalem’, Tourist Studies6(3): 215–43.
16.
BrownD. (1996) ‘Genuine Fakes’, pp. 33–47 in SelwynT. (ed.) The Tourist Image: Myths and Myth Making in Tourism. Chichester: Wiley.
17.
CastanedaQ. (2010) ‘Tourism Research: Workshop in New Theories, Methods, and Practices’. Workshop at the Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, New Orleans, 17 November.
18.
CohenE. (1985) ‘The Tourist Guide: The Origins, Structure and Dynamics of a Role’, Annals of Tourism Research12(1): 5–29.
19.
CohenE. (1992) ‘Pilgrimage and Tourism: Convergence and Divergence’, pp. 47–61 in MorinisA. (ed.) Sacred Journeys: The Anthropology of Pilgrimage. Westport: Greenwood Press.
20.
CohenE. (2011) ‘Educational Dark Tourism at an In Populo Site: The Holocaust Museum in Jerusalem’, Annals of Tourism Research38(1): 193–209.
21.
Collins-KreinerN. (2009) ‘Researching Pilgrimage: Continuity and Transformations’, Annals of Tourism Research37(2): 440–56.
22.
Collins-KreinerN.GatrellJ. D. (2006) ‘Tourism, Heritage and Pilgrimage: The Case of Haifa Baha’i Gardens’, Journal of Heritage Tourism1(1): 32–50.
23.
Collins-KreinerN.KliotN. (2000) ‘Pilgrimage Tourism in the Holy Land: The Behavioral Characteristics of Christian Pilgrims’, GeoJournal501: 55–67.
24.
CooleyA. (2008) Base Politics: Democratic Change and the U.S. Military Overseas. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
25.
DahlesH. (2002) ‘The Politics of Tour Guiding: Image Management in Indonesia’, Annals of Tourism Research29(3): 783–800.
26.
DannG. M. S. (2005) ‘Children of the Dark’, pp. 233–252 in AshworthG.HartmannR. (eds) Horror and Human Tragedy Revisited: The Management of Sites of Atrocities for Tourism. New York: Cognizant Communication.
27.
Den’en Chōfu Kōtō Gakkō (1996) Okinawa: Shizen to heiwa wo mitsumeta tabi: Dai 44-ki sei shūgaku ryokō bunshū [Okinawa: A Trip to Gaze upon Nature and Peace: Writings by the 44th Class on Shūgaku Ryokō]. Tokyo: Author.
28.
DillerE.ScofidioR. (1994) ‘Introduction’, pp. 18–31 in DillerE.ScofidioR. (eds) Back to the Front: Tourisms of War. Normandie: F.R.A.C. Basse-Normandie.
29.
EadeJSallnowM. J. (1991) Contesting the Sacred: The Anthropology of Christian Pilgrimage. London: Routledge.
30.
EdensorT. (2000) ‘Staging Tourism: Tourists as Performers’, Annals of Tourism Research27(2): 322–44.
31.
EnloeC. (2007) Globalization and Militarism: Feminists Make the Link. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield
32.
FeldmanJ. (2007) ‘Constructing a Shared Bible Land: Jewish Israeli Guiding Performances for Protestant Pilgrims’, American Ethnologist34(2): 351–374.
33.
FeldmanJ. (2008) Above the Death Pits: Youth Voyages to Poland and the Performance of Israeli National Identity. Oxford: Berghahn Books.
34.
FigalG. (2003) ‘Waging Peace in Okinawa’, pp. 39–64 in HeinL.SeldenM. (eds), Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.
35.
FigalG. (2007) ‘Bones of Contention: The Geopolitics of “Sacred Ground” in Postwar Okinawa’, Diplomatic History31(1): 81–109.
36.
FineE. C.SpeerJ. H. (1985) ‘Tour Guide Performances as Sight Sacralization’, Annals of Tourism Research12(1): 73–95.
37.
FreischerA. (2000) ‘The Tourist behind the Pilgrim in the Holy Land’, International Journal of Hospitality Management19(3): 311–26.
38.
FreyN. L. (1998) Pilgrim Stories: On and Off the Road to Santiago. Berkeley: University of California Press.
39.
GnothJ. (1997) ‘Tourism Motivation and Expectation Formation’, Annals of Tourism Research24(2): 283–304.
40.
HamaiK. (2005) ‘Okinawasen Senbotsusha wo Meguru Nichibei Kankei to Okinawa [Another “Okinawa Problem”: The War Dead of Okinawa in Postwar U.S.–Japan Relations]’, Gaikōshiryōkanpō19: 89–115.
41.
HamaiK. (2006) ‘Kita no Hate kara Minami no Shima e: Hokureihi Junpaidan no Okinawa Tokō to Sono Inpakuto [The Historical Impact of the First Pilgrimage of the War Bereaved in Hokkaidō to Okinawa]’, Nijusseiki Kenkyū7: 53–77
42.
HandlerR.GableE. (1997) The New History in an Old Museum: Creating the Past at Colonial Williamsburg. Durham: Duke University Press.
43.
HarrisonJ. (2003) Being a Tourist: Finding Meaning in Pleasure Travel. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
44.
HiyaneT. (2005) ‘Musen-ron no Keifu [Genealogy of No-War Philosophy]’, pp. 15–31 in IshiharaM.NakachiH.LummisC. D. (eds) Okinawa wo Heiwa-gaku suru! [Doing Peace Studies in Okinawa!]. Kyoto: Hōritsu Bunkasha.
45.
HollowayJ. C. (1981) ‘The Guided Tour: A Sociological Approach’, Annals of Tourism Research8(3): 377–402.
46.
HughesR. (2008) ‘Dutiful Tourism: Encountering the Cambodian Genocide’, Asia Pacific Viewpoint49(3): 318–30.
47.
IijimaY. (2003) ‘Okinawa ni Kakeru Hashi: Heiwa Gakushū no Kyōiku-teki Kōka ni tsuite [A Bridge to Okinawa: On Educational Impacts of Peace Study]’, Kikan Okinawa25: 34–39.
48.
InoueM. S. (2007) Okinawa and the U.S. Military: Identity Making in the Age of Globalization. New York: Columbia University Press.
49.
IshiharaM. (2002) ‘Okinawa-ken Heiwa Kinen Shiryōkan to “Heiwa-no-Ishiji” no Imisuru Mono [Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum and the Meanings of “the Cornerstone of Peace”]’, pp. 308–23 in IshiharaM.ŌshiroM.HosakaH.MatsunagaK. (eds) Sōten: Okinawasen no Kioku [A Point of Debate: The Memories of the Battle of Okinawa]. Tokyo: Shakai Hyōronsha.
50.
KandaM. (2000) ‘Okinawa Shūgaku Ryokō to Heiwa Gakushū: Okinawa no Kako, Genzai, soshite Mirai [Okinawa Educational School Trip and Peace Studies: Okinawa’s Past, Present, and Future]’, Kikan Okinawa18: 37–41.
51.
KanzakiN. (2004) Edo no Tabi Bunka [Travel Cultures in Edo Era]. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.
52.
KasamaT. (1987) ‘A Century of School Excursions’, Japan Quarterly34(3): 287–90.
53.
KatzS. (1995) ‘The Israeli Teacher-Guide: The Emergence and Perpetuation of a Role’, Annals of Tourism Research12(1): 49–72.
54.
KitamuraT. (2004) ‘Okinawa Senseki no “Omotedōri” to “Uradōri”: “Okinawasen Kiroku/Keishō Undō” no Genryū [Antagonisms of Memory: Local Retellings of the Battle of Okinawa]’, Hyūman Saiensu Risāchi13: 51–72.
55.
KitamuraT. (2005) ‘Senshisha e/tono Tabi: Okinawa Senseki Junrei ni okeru “Izoku no Komyunitasu” [Pilgrimage to/with the War Dead: “Communitas of the War Bereaved” of the Battle of Okinawa]’, Ningen Kagaku Kenkyū18(2): 137–52.
56.
KitamuraT. (2006) ‘Sensō to Heiwa no katararekata: Heiwa Gaido ni yoru Okinawasen no Katari wo Jirei to shite [Narrating War and Peace: Analysis of the Practices of Peace Guides in Okinawa]’, Ningen Kagaku Kenkyū19(2): 55–73.
57.
KitamuraT. (2007) ‘Okinawa no “Mabuni-no-Oka” ni Miru Senshisha Hyōshō no Porityikusu: Kokumei-hi “Heiwa-no-Ishiji” wo meguru Gensetsu to Jissen no Bunseki [The Politics of Representation of the War Dead: An Analysis of Discourses and Practices Concerning the ‘Cornerstone of Peace’ in Okinawa]’, Chiiki Kenkyū3: 49–66.
58.
KitamuraT. (2009) Shisha-tachi no Sengo-shi: Okinawa Senseki wo meguru Hitobito no Kioku [A Postwar Ethnography of the War Dead in Okinawa]. Tokyo: Ochanomizu Shobō.
59.
KitauedaG. (2005) ‘Boku wo Ugokashita Ikutsuka no Kotoba: Gakusei Heiwa Gaido wo Tōshite [The Few Words that Moved Me: Being a Student Peace Guide]’, p. 70 in IshiharaM.NakachiH.LummisC. D. (eds) Okinawa wo Heiwa-gaku suru! [Doing Peace Studies in Okinawa!]. Kyoto: Hōritsu Bunkasha.
60.
LadermanS. (2009) Tours of Vietnam: War, Travel Guides, and Memory. Durham: Duke University Press.
61.
LennonJ.FoleyM. (2000) Dark Tourism: The Attraction of Death and Disaster. New York: Continuum.
62.
LugosiP. (2006) ‘Between Overt and Covert Research: Concealment and Disclosure in an Ethnographic Study of Commercial Hospitality’, Qualitative Inquiry12(3): 541–61.
63.
LutzC. (ed.) (2009) The Bases of Empire: The Global Struggle against U.S. Military Posts. New York: New York University Press.
64.
MacCannellD. (1976) The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class. New York: Schocken Books.
65.
McGeheeN. G. (2002) ‘Alternative Tourism and Social Movements’, Annals of Tourism Research29(1): 124–43.
66.
McGeheeN. G.SantosC. A. (2005) ‘Social Change, Discourse and Volunteer Tourism’, Annals of Tourism Research32(3): 760–79.
67.
MaozD. (2007) ‘Backpackers’ Motivations: The Role of Culture and Nationality’, Annals of Tourism Research34(1): 122–40.
68.
MargryP. J. (2008) ‘Secular Pilgrimage: A Contradiction in Terms?’, pp. 13–46 in MargryP. J. (ed.) Shrines and Pilgrimage in the Modern World: New Itineraries into the Sacred. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam Press.
69.
MiyamoriM. (1993) ‘Kankō Panfuretto ni yotte Keisei sareru Okinawa Kankō no Imēji no Kenkyū: Kankō Panfuretto no Māketyingu-teki Teiryō Bunseki kara [A Study of Okinawan Images Created by Tourism Pamphlets: Quantitative Analysis of the Pamphlets]’, Okinawa Joshi Tanki Daigaku Kiyō10: 65–81.
70.
MorinisA. (ed.) (1992) Sacred Journeys: The Anthropology of Pilgrimage. Westport: Greenwood Press.
71.
MurakamiA. (1999) ‘Okinawa no Sensō Iseki to Heiwa Gakushū [Okinawa Battle Ruins and Peace Studies]’, Kēshikaji22: 30–33.
72.
Okinawa Heiwa Nettowāku (n.d., a) Heiwa Gaido towa [Who Is Peace Guide?]. Available at http://okinawaheiwa.net/peace-guide, accessed 20 April 2011.
73.
Okinawa Heiwa Nettowāku (n.d., b) Gaido Kōshi Haken Irai Mōshikomi ni atatte [Upon Requesting a Guide-Lecturer]. Available at http://okinawaheiwa.net/data/form.pdf, accessed 20 October 2010.
Okinawa-ken Kōkyōso Nanbu Shibu and Heiwa Kyōiku Kenkyū Iinkai (1986) Aruku, Miru, Kangaeru Okinawa [Okinawa for Walking, Looking, and Thinking]. Naha: Okinawa Jiji Shuppan.
80.
ŌkuboY. (1999) ‘Okinawasen to Sengoshi wo Shiraseru tame ni: Senseki wo Dō Miseru ka [To Educate the Public about the Battle of Okinawa and the Postwar History: How to Show the Battle Ruins]’, Kēshikaji22: 34–35.
81.
ŌshiroM. (2004) ‘Kōshite “Heiwa Gaido” ga Tanjō shita [This is How “Peace Guides” Were Born]’, Ne to Waku43: 2–4.
82.
ŌshiroM. (2005) ‘Heiwa no Bunka no Sōzō to Hasshin [Creation and Dissemination of the Culture of Peace]’, pp. 178–91 in IshiharaM.NakachiH.LummisC. D. (eds) Okinawa wo Heiwa-gaku suru! [Doing Peace Studies in Okinawa!]. Kyoto: Hōritsu Bunkasha.
83.
ŌshiroM.MezakiS. (2006) Shūgaku Ryokō no tame no Okinawa An’nai [Okinawa Guide for School Educational Trip]. Tokyo: Kōbunken.
84.
ŌtaM. (2006) Shishatachi wa Imada Nemurezu: ‘Irei’ no Imi wo Tou [The Dead are Unable to Rest Yet Questioning the Meaning of ‘Pacifying the Spirits of the Dead’]. Tokyo: Shinsensha.
PitmanT.BroomhallS.MajochaE.McEwanJ. (2010b) ‘Adult Learning in Educational Tourism’, Australian Journal of Adult Learning50(2): 219–238.
87.
ResingerY.SteinerC. (2006) ‘Reconceptualising Interpretation: The Role of Tour Guides in Authentic Tourism’, Current Issues in Tourism9(6): 481–498.
88.
RojekC. (1997) ‘Indexing, Dragging and the Social Construction of Tourist Sights’, pp. 52–74 in RojekC.UrryJ. (eds) Touring Cultures: Transformations of Travel and Theory. New York: Routledge.
SeatonA. V. (1999) ‘War and Thanatourism: Waterloo 1815–1914’, Annals of Tourism Research26(1): 130–58.
91.
SeatonA. V. (2002) ‘Observing Conducted Tours: The Ethnographic Context in Tourist Research’, Journal of Vacation Marketing8: 309–19.
92.
SelwynT. (ed.) (1996) The Tourist Image: Myths and Myth Making in Tourism. New York: Wiley.
93.
ShimaT. (1983) Okinawa-sen wo Kangaeru [Thinking about the Battle of Okinawa]. Naha: Hirugisha.
94.
ShirahataY. (1996) Ryokō no Susume: Shōwa ga Unda Shomin no ‘Shin-bunka’ [Recommending Travel: Mass ‘New Culture’ Born in Shōwa Era]. Tokyo: Chūōkōronsha.
95.
StrangeC.KempaM. (2003) ‘Shades of Dark Tourism: Alcatraz and Robben Island’, Annals of Tourism Research30(2): 386–405
96.
StoneP. (2006) ‘A Dark Tourism Spectrum: Toward a Typology of Death and Macabre Related Tourist Sites, Attractions and Exhibitions’, Tourism: An Interdisciplinary International Journal54(2): 145–160.
97.
SturkenM. (2007) Tourists of History: Memory, Kitsch, and Consumerism from Oklahoma City to Ground Zero. Durham: Duke University Press.
98.
SuzukiT. (forthcoming) ‘Narrating War and Peace at Battle Ruins: Okinawan Tourism-Activism Discourses’, in HodgesA. (ed.) The Discourses of War and Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
99.
TakahashiJ (2006) ‘Okinawa Shūgaku Ryokō no Hensen: Torimaku Jōkyō to Erabareru Riyū [Changes of School Excursion to Okinawa: Present Situation and Reasons for Choice]’, Nihon Joshi Daigaku Daigakuin Ningen Shakai Kenkyūka Kiyō12: 31–47.
100.
TanjiM. (2006) Myth, Protest and Struggle in Okinawa. New York: Routledge.
101.
Thurnell-ReadT. P. (2009) ‘Engaging Auschwitz: an Analysis of Young Travelers’ Experiences of Holocaust Tourism’, Journal of Tourism Consumption and Practice1(1): 26–52.
102.
TomiyamaI. (2000) ‘“Spy”: Mobilization and Identity in Wartime Okinawa’, pp. 121–32 in National Museum of Ethnology (ed.) Japanese Civilization in the Modern World XVI: Nation State and Empire. Senri: Japan National Museum of Ethnology.
103.
TomiyamaI. (2006) Zōho: Senjō no Kioku [The Memories of Battlefields: Expanded Edition]. Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Hyōronsha.
104.
TurmakinM. (2005) Traumascapes: The Power and Fate of Places Transformed by Tragedy. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press
105.
TurnerV. (1973) ‘The Center Out There: Pilgrim’s Goal’, History of Religions123: 191–230.
106.
TurnerV.TurnerE. (1978) Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture. New York: Columbia University Press.
107.
UrryJ. (1990) The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies. London: Sage.
108.
WangN. (2006) ‘Itineraries and the Tourist Experience’, pp. 65–76 in MincaL. C.OakesT. (eds) Travels and Paradox: Remapping Tourism. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.
109.
WhiteG. (1997) ‘Museum/Memorial/Shrine: National Narrative in National Spaces’, Museum Anthropology21(1): 8–27.
110.
Yasukuni Jinja Kokueika Hantai Okinawa Kirisutosha Renrakukai (ed.) (1983) Sensō Sanbi ni Igi Ari!: Okinawa ni okeru Ireitō Hibun Chōsa Hōkoku [An Objection to the Glorification of War!: A Report on Memorial Inscriptions in Okinawa]. Sajiki: Editor.
111.
YoneyamaL. (1999) Hiroshima Traces: Time, Space, and the Dialectics of Memory. Berkeley: University of California Press.
112.
YoshikawaY. (2003) ‘Sensō iseki to heiwa gaido: Koe naki [War ruins and peace guide: voiceless witness]’, pp. 101–102 in Sensō Iseki Hozon Zenkoku Nettowāku (ed.) Sensō Iseki kara Manabu [Learning from War Ruins]. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.
