Given recent concerns about the degradation of coral reef ecosystems world-wide, we investigated the environmental history of the Great Barrier Reef of Australia using qualitative methods. In particular, we used archival and oral history sources to reconstruct changes in coral reefs, islands and marine wildlife species for the period 1860â1970 and we evaluated the potential of qualitative methods to inform marine environmental research. Here, we argue that qualitative research offers a valuable means of reconstructing environmental changes, their drivers and their historical contexts. However, we found that qualitative methods also had important limitations. Hence we identify strategies for addressing those challenges and we suggest criteria for ensuring the accuracy and rigor of qualitative sources in marine environmental research. Overall, we argue that qualitative methods offer distinctive insights into the environmental history of the Great Barrier Reef, and that qualitative reconstructions can act as important triggers for conservation of marine ecosystems.
Agassiz, A. (1898) A Visit to the Great Barrier Reef of Australia in the Steamer `Croydon,' During April and May, 1896. Cambridge, MA: Museum of Comparative Zoology.
2.
Allen, B. and Montell, W.L. (1981) From Memory to Hstory: Using Oral Sources in Local Historical Research. Nashville, TN: The American Association for State and Local History.
3.
Bailey, C., White, C. and Pain, R. (1999) `Evaluating Qualitative Research: Dealing with the Tension Between `Science' and `Creativity', Area31(2): 169-83.
4.
Banfield, E.J. (1908) The Confessions of a Beachcomber: Scenes and Incidents in the Career of an Unprofessional Beachcomber in Queensland. London: T. Fisher Unwin.
5.
Barrett, C. (1930) `The Great Barrier Reef and its Isles: The Wonder and Mystery of Australia's World-Famous Geographical Feature', National Geographic Magazine58(3): 355-82.
6.
Barrett, C. (1943) Australia's Coral Realm: Wonders of Sea, Reef and Shore. Melbourne: Robertson and Mullens.
7.
Baxter, J. and Eyles, J. (1997) `Evaluating Qualitative Research in Social Geography: Establishing "Rigour" in Interview Analysis', Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers NS22: 505-25.
8.
Bell, M. and Walker, M.J.C. (2005) Late Quaternary Environmental Change: Physical and Human Perspectives (2nd Edition). Harlow: Pearson.
9.
Bellwood, D.R., Hughes, T.P., Folke, C. and Nyström, M. (2004) `Confronting the Coral Reef Crisis', Nature429 (24 June 2004): 827-33.
10.
Bouma, G.D. and Atkinson, G.B.J. (1995) A Handbook of Social Science Research (2nd Edition). Oxford : Oxford University Press.
11.
Bowen, J. (1994) `The Great Barrier Reef: Towards Conservation and Management', in S. Dovers (ed.) Australian Environmental History: Essays and Cases, pp. 234-56. Melbourne : Oxford University Press.
12.
Bowen, J. and Bowen, M. (2002) The Great Barrier Reef: History, Science, Heritage . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
13.
British Museum (Natural History) (1930- 1940) Great Barrier Reef Expedition 1928-1929: Scientific Reports, 4 Volumes. London: British Museum .
14.
Caldwell, N. (1936) Fangs of the Sea. Sydney: Angus and Robertson.
15.
Caldwell, N. (1938) Titans of the Barrier Reef: Further Adventures of a Shark Fisherman. Sydney: Angus and Robertson.
16.
Chilvers, B.L., Lawler, I.R., MacKnight, F., Marsh, H., Noad, M. and Paterson, R. (2005) `Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia: An Example of the Co-Existence of Significant Marine Mammal Populations and Large-Scale Coastal Development', Biological Conservation122: 559-71.
17.
Chin, A. and Ayling, A. (2000) `Disturbance and Recovery Cycles: Long-Term Monitoring on "Unlucky" Inshore Fringing Reefs in the Cairns Section of the GBRMP', Reef Research10(1): 5-8.
18.
Christesen, C.B. (1936) `Roving the Coral Seas', Walkabout (1 June 1936): 28.
19.
Commonwealth of Australia, Productivity Commission (2003) Industries, Land Use and Water Quality in the Great Barrier Reef Catchment. Research Report. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia Productivity Commission.
20.
Commonwealth of Australia, Royal Commission on the Pearl-Shelling Industry (1913) Progress Report. Melbourne: Government Printer.
Crang, M. (2002) `Qualitative Methods: The New Orthodoxy?', Progress in Human Geography26(5): 647-55.
25.
Cronon, W. (1992) `A Place for Stories: Nature, History and Narrative' , Journal of American History78: 1347-76.
26.
Daley, B. (2005) `Changes in the Great Barrier Reef since European Settlement: Implications for Contemporary Management', PhD Thesis, School of Tropical Environment Studies and Geography: James Cook University .
27.
Daley, B. and Griggs, P. (2006) `Mining the Reefs and cays: Coral, Guano and Rock Phosphate Extraction in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, 1863-1940', Environment and History12(4): 395-433.
28.
Daley, B. and Griggs, P. (2008), `"Loved to Death": Coral Collecting in the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, 1770-1970', Environment and History14(1): 89-119.
29.
Dana, J.D. (1872) Corals and Coral Islands. London : Sampson Low, Marston, Low and Searle.
30.
Darwin, C. (1842) The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Being the First Part of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle, under the Command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. during the years 1832 to 1836. London: Smith, Elder and Company.
31.
Dennis, C. (2002) `Reefs Under Threat from "Bleaching" Outbreak' , Nature415 (28 February 2002): 947.
32.
Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S. (2000) `Introduction: The Discipline and Practice Of Qualitative Research', in N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd Edition), pp. 1-28. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
33.
Fitzgerald, R. (1982) From the Dreaming to 1915: A History of Queensland . St Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press.
34.
Fitzgerald, R. (1984) From 1915 to the Early 1980s: A History of Queensland . St Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press.
35.
Furnas, M. (2003) Catchments and Corals: Terrestrial Runoff to the Great Barrier Reef. Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science.
36.
GBRMPA (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority) (2003) Overview: The Current Status of the Great Barrier Reef. Townsville: GRBMPA.
37.
Gbrmpa (2004) Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Zoning Plan 2003. Townsville: GBRMPA.
Gillham, B. (2000) The Research Interview. London : Continuum.
40.
Griggs, P. (1997) `The Origins and Development of the small Cane Farming System in Queensland, 1870-1915', Journal of Historical Geography23 (1): 46-61.
41.
Griggs, P. (2000) `Sugar Plantations in Queensland, 1864-1912: Origins , Characteristics, Distribution and Decline', Agricultural History74 (3): 1-25.
42.
Hedley, C. (1924) `Australian Pearl Fisheries', Australian Museum Magazine2(1): 5-11.
43.
Hopley, D. (1982) The Geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef: Quaternary Development of Coral Reefs. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
44.
Hopley, D. (1988) `Anthropogenic Influences on Australia's Great Barrier Reef', Australian Geographer19(1): 26-45.
45.
Hopley, D. (1989) The Great Barrier Reef: Ecology and Management . Melbourne: Longman Cheshire.
46.
Hopley, D. (1994) `Continental Shelf Reef Systems', in R.W.G. Carter and C.D. Woodroffe (eds) Coastal Evolution: Late Quaternary Shoreline Morphodynamics, pp. 303-40. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
47.
Hughes, I.A. (1937) In the Wake of the `Cheerio': The Narrative of a Memorable Cruise in Great Barrier Reef Waters. Sydney : I.A. Hughes.
48.
Hughes, T.P., Baird, A.H., Bellwood, D.R., Card, M., Connolly, S.R., Folke, C., Grosberg, R., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Jackson, J.B.C., Kleypas, J., Lough, J.M., Marshall, P., Nyström, M., Palumbi, S.R., Pandolfi, J., Rosen, B. and Roughgarden, J. (2003) `Climate Change, Human Impacts, and the Resilience of Coral Reefs', Science301 (15 August 2003): 929-33.
49.
Hughes, T.P., Bellwood, D.R., Folke, C., Steneck, R. and Wilson, J. (2005) `New Paradigms for Supporting the Resilience of Marine Ecosystems', Trends in Ecology and Evolution20(7): 380-6.
50.
Jackson, J.B.C., Kirby, M.X., Berger, W.H., Bjorndal, K.A., Botsford, L.W., Bourque, B.J., Bradbury, R.H., Cooke, R., Erlandson, J., Estes, J.A., Hughes, T.P., Kidwell, S., Lange, C.B., Lenihan, H.S., Pandolfi, J.M., Peterson, C.H., Steneck, R.S., Tegner, M.J. and Warner, R.R. (2001) `Historical Overfishing and the Recent Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems', Science293 (27 July 2001): 629-38.
51.
Jones, D. (1961) Cardwell Shire Story. Brisbane : Jacaranda Press.
52.
Lack, C. (1968) `Dugong Fishing in Early Queensland', Newsletter of the Royal Australian Historical Society (November 1968): 4-6.
53.
Lamond, H.G. (1936) `Sharking', Walkabout (1 March 1936): 23-5.
54.
Lawrence, D., Kenchington, R. and Woodley, S. (2002) The Great Barrier Reef: Finding the Right Balance . Carlton South, Victoria: Melbourne University Press.
55.
Lock, A.C.C. (1955) Destination Barrier Reef. Melbourne : Georgian House.
56.
Lucas, P.H., Webb, T., Valentine, P.S. and Marsh, H. (1997) The Outstanding Universal Value of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. Townsville: GBRMPA.
57.
McCulloch, M., Fallon, S., Wyndham, T., Hendy, E., Lough, J. and Barnes, D. (2003) `Coral Record of Increased Sediment Flux to the Inner Great Barrier Reef Since European Settlement', Nature421 (13 February 2003): 727-30.
58.
McLoughlin, L.C. (1999) `Environmental History, Environmental Management and the Public Record: Will the Records be there When You Need Them?', Australian Journal of Environmental Management6: 207-18.
59.
McLoughlin, L.C. (2000) `Shaping Sydney Harbour: Sedimentation, Dredging and Reclamation 1788-1990s', Australian Geographer31(2): 183-208.
60.
Mackay, J., Douglas, H.A.C. and Bennett, G.H. (1908) Report, Together with Minutes of Proceedings, Minutes of Evidence Taken before the Commission, and Appendices, Queensland Royal Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Working of the Pearl-Shell and Beche-de-Mer Industries. Brisbane: Government Printer.
61.
Marsh, H., Lawler, I., Kwan, D., Delean, S., Pollock, K. and Alldredge, M. (2004) `Aerial Surveys and the Potential Biological Removal Technique Indicate that the Torres Strait Dugong Fishery is Unsustainable' , Animal Conservation7: 435-43.
62.
Marsh, H., De'ath, G., Gribble, N. and Lane, B. (2005) `Historical Marine Population Estimates: Triggers or Targets for Conservation? The Dugong Case Study', Ecological Applications15: 481-92.
63.
Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1984) Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook of New Methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage .
64.
Moorhouse, F.W. (1935a) `Notes on the Green Turtle (Chelonia Mydas)', Reports of the Great Barrier Reef Committee4(1): 1-22.
65.
Moorhouse, F.W. (1935b) `Report of Field Investigator for Quarter Ended 30 June 1935', Reports of the Great Barrier Reef Committee6.
66.
Napier, E.S. (1928) On the Barrier Reef: Notes from a No-ologist's Pocket-Book. Sydney: Angus and Robertson .
67.
Pandolfi, J.M., Bradbury, R., Sala, E., Hughes, T.P., Bjorndal, K.A., Cooke, R.G., McArdle, D., McClenachen, L., Newman, M.J.H., Paredes, G., Warner, R.R. and Jackson, J.B.C. (2003) `Global Trajectories of the Long-Term Decline of Coral Reef Ecosystems', Science301: 957.
68.
Pandolfi, J.M., Jackson, J.B.C., Baron, N., Bradbury, R.H., Guzman, H.M., Hughes, T.P., Kappel, C.V., Micheli, F., Ogden, J.C., Possingham, H.P. and Sala, E. (2005) `Are U.S. Coral Reefs on the slippery Road to Slime?' , Science307 (18 March 2005): 1725-6.
Pulsford, J.S. (1996) `Historical Nutrient Usage in Coastal Queensland River Catchments Adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park', Research Publication No. 40. Townsville: GBRMPA.
71.
QEPA (Queensland Environmental Protection Agency) (1999) State of the Environment Queensland 1999. Brisbane: QEPA.
72.
QGITB (Queensland Government Intelligence and Tourist Bureau ) (1923) The Great Barrier Reef of Australia: A Popular Account of its General Nature, Compiled by the GBRC. Brisbane: QGITB.
73.
QGTB (Queensland Government Tourist Bureau) ( 1931) The Great Barrier Coral Reef, Queensland. Brisbane: QGTB.
74.
Reid, F. (1933) `Angling Thrills in Coral Waters', Cummins and Campbell's Monthly Magazine5(75): 37-41.
75.
Roberts, N. (1998) The Holocene: An Environmental History (2nd Edition). Oxford: Blackwell.
76.
Robertson, B.M. (2000) Oral History Handbook (4th Edition). Adelaide: Oral History Association of Australia (South Australia Branch) Inc.
77.
Roughley, T.C. (1936) The Wonders of the Great Barrier Reef. Sydney: Angus and Robertson.
78.
Saville-Kent, W. (1890a) `BĂȘche-de-mer and Pearl-Shell Fisheries of Northern Queensland', QPP3(2): 727-34.
79.
Saville-Kent, W. (1890b) `Fisheries, Wide Bay district', QVP3(2): 713-4.
80.
Saville-Kent, W. (1890c) `Pearl and Pearl-Shell Fisheries of Northern Queensland' , QPP3(2): 703-12.
81.
Saville-Kent, W. (1893) The Great Barrier Reef of Australia: Its Products and Potentialities. London: W.H. Allen.
82.
Science Panel (Great Barrier Reef Protection Interdepartmental Committee Science Panel) (2003) `A Report on the Study of Land-Sourced Pollutants and their Impacts on Water Quality in and adjacent to theGreat Barrier Reef', URL (consulted 30 January 2003): http://www.premiers.qld.gov.au/about/reefwater.pdf
83.
Serventy, V. (1955) Australia's Great Barrier Reef: A Handbook on the Corals, Shells, Crabs, Larger Animals and Birds, With Some Remarks on the Reef's Place in History. Melbourne: Georgian House.
84.
Silverman, D. (1993) Interpreting Qualitative Data: Methods for Analysing Talk, Text and Interaction. London: Sage.
85.
Steers, J.A. (1938) `Detailed Notes on the Islands Surveyed and Examined by the Geographical Expedition to the Great Barrier Reef in 1936', Reports of the Great Barrier Reef Committee4(3): 51-104.
86.
Stephenson, T.A., Tandy, G. and Spender, M.A. (1930-1940) `The Structure and Ecology of Low Isles and Other Reefs', in British Museum (Natural History), Great Barrier Reef Expedition 1928-1929: Scientific Reports, 3: 17-112. London: British Museum.
87.
Strauss, A.L. and Corbin, J. (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory (2nd Edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
88.
Veron, J.E.N. (1986) Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. Sydney: Angus and Robertson.
89.
Veron, J.E.N. (1995) Corals in Space and Time: The Biogeography and Evolution of the Scleractinia. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.
90.
Veron, J.E.N. (2000) Corals of the World, 3 Volumes. Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science .
91.
Wachenfeld, D.R., Oliver, J.K. and Davis, K. (eds) (1997) State of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area Workshop: Proceedings of a Technical Workshop Held in Townsville, Queensland, Australia, 27-29 November 1995, Workshop Series No. 23. Townsville : GBRMPA.
92.
Wachenfeld, D.R.,Oliver, J.K. and Morrissey, J.I. (eds) (1998) State of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. Townsville: GBRMPA.
93.
Wilkinson, C. (ed.) (2000) Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000. Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science.
94.
Williams, D.McB. (2001) Impacts of Terrestrial Run-Off on the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, Report to CRC Reef. Townsville : CRC Reef Research Centre.
