Student-led discussion during small group work is now a familiar feature in many schools. However, simply organizing students in small groups does not mean they will automatically participate in collaborative discussion. In this article I report on a small-scale research project in the UK which examined the discourse patterns of year 8 (13-14-year-old students) as they worked in discussion groups during English lessons. Using a multi-case study approach, video recordings were made in four high schools over a one-year period and qualitative analysis was undertaken. For illustrative purposes I focus on two transcripts which are representative of discussions from a full range of 40 video recordings and illustrate common and recurrent patterns of discourse. The findings suggest that students’ interpretations of tasks are influenced by an orthodox perception of teaching and learning which emphasizes independent and individualized working practices in schools. The importance of explicit and unambiguous teacher guidance is highlighted, and the apparent paradox of encouraging critical and open discussion of texts within a structured framework is examined.
Alvermann, D. and Young, J. (1996) ‘Middle and High School Pupils’ Perceptions of How They Experience Text-based Discussions: A Multicase Study’, Reading Research Quarterly31: 244-267.
2.
Aspland, T., Macpherson, I., Proudford, C. and Whitmore, L. (1996) ‘Critical Collaborative Action Research as a Means of Curriculum Inquiry and Empowerment’, Educational Action Research4: 93-104.
3.
Barnes, D. and Sheeran, Y. (1992) ‘Oracy and Genre’, in K. Norman (ed.) Thinking Voices: The Work of the National Oracy Project. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
4.
Barnes, D. and Todd, F. (1977) Communication and Learning in Small Groups. London: Routledge.
5.
Bassey, M. (1999) Case Study Research in Educational Settings. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
6.
Bennett, N. and Dunne, E. (1992) Managing Classroom Groups. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes.
7.
Bossert, S., Barnett, B. and Filby, N. (1984) ‘Grouping and Instructional Organisation’, in P. Peterson, L. Wilkinson and M. Hallinan (eds) The Social Context of Instruction. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
8.
Bruner, J. (1986) Actual Minds Possible Worlds. New York: Harvard University Press.
9.
Burgess, R. (1981) ‘Keeping a Research Diary’, Cambridge Journal of Education11: 75-83.
10.
Cicourel, A. (1974) Language Use and School Performance. New York: Academic Press.
11.
Cochran-Smith, M. and Lytle, S. (1999) ‘Relationships of Knowledge and Practice: Teacher Learning in Communities’, in A. Iran-Nejad and C. Pearson (eds) Review of Research in Education, Vol. 24. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
12.
Cohen, E. (1994) ‘Restructuring the Classroom: Conditions for Productive Small Groups’, Review of Educational Research64: 1-35.
13.
Cordingley, P. (1999) ‘Constructing and Critiquing Reflective Practice’, Educational Action Research7: 183-190.
14.
Cowie, H. and Ruddock, J. (1988) Cooperative Group Work: An Overview. London: BP Educational Service.
15.
Crook, C. (1991) ‘Computers in the Zone of Proximal Development: Implications for Evaluation’, Computers in Education17: 81-91.
16.
Davies, A. (1978) Conrad’s War. Harmondsworth: Puffin.
17.
Dawes, L., Fisher, E. and Mercer, N. (1992) ‘The Quality of Talk at the Computer’, Language and Learning, October: 22-25.
18.
Deci, E. and Ryan, R. (1986) Intrinsic Motivation and Self Determination in Human Behaviour. New York: Plenum.
19.
DfEE (2000) Best Practice Research Scholarships. London: DfEE.
20.
Delamont, S. and Galton, M. (1986) Inside the Secondary Classroom. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
21.
Edwards, D. and Mercer, N. (1987) Common Knowledge: The Development of Understanding in the Classroom. London: Methuen.
22.
Edwards, A.D. and Westgate, D.P.G. (1994) Investigating Classroom Talk, 2nd edn.London: Falmer.
23.
Elbers, E. and Kelderman, A. (1994) ‘Ground Rules for Testing: Expectations and Misunderstandings in Test Situations’, European Journal of Psychology of Education9: 111-120.
24.
Erikson, F. and Shultz, J. (1992) ‘Pupils’ Experience in the Curriculum’, in P. Jackson (ed.) Handbook of Research on Curriculum. New York: Macmillan.
25.
Everton, T., Galton, M. and Pell, T. (2000) ‘Teachers’ Perspectives on Educational Research: Knowledge and Context’, Journal of Education for Teaching26: 167-182.
26.
Galton, M. and Williamson, J. (1992) Group Work in the Primary Classroom. London: Routledge.
27.
Glaser, B.G. and Strauss, A.L. (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Chicago: Aldine de Gruyter.
28.
Goetz, J.P. and LeCompte, M.D. (1984) Ethnography and Qualitative Design in Educational Research. New York: Academic Press.
29.
Gordon, T. and Lahelma, E. (1996) ‘School is Like an Ants’ Nest: Spatiality and Embodiment in Schools’, Gender in Education8: 303-310.
30.
Griffiths, M. and Impey, G. (eds) (2000) Working Partnerships: Better Research and Learning. Nottingham: Nottingham Trent University.
31.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1989) Spoken and Written Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
32.
Hardman, F. and Beverton, S. (1993) ‘Co-operative Group Work and the Development of Metadiscoursal Skills’, Support for Learning8: 146-150.
33.
Hargreaves, D. (1996) ‘Teaching as a research-based profession: possibilities and prospects’, The Teacher Training Agency Annual Lecture, 1996.
34.
Holden, C. (1993) ‘Giving Girls a Chance: Patterns of Talk in Co-operative Group Work’, Gender in Education5: 179-189.
35.
Hoyles, C., Sutherland, R. and Healey, I. (1990) ‘Children Talking in Computer Environments: New Insights on the Role of Discussion in Mathematics Learning’, in K. Durkin and B. Shine (eds) Language and Mathematics Education. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
36.
Hutchinson, S. (1988) ‘Education and Grounded Theory’, in R.S. Sherman and R.B. Webb (eds) Qualitative Research in Education: Focus and Methods. New York: Falmer Press.
37.
Johnson, D., Johnson, R. and Stannes, M. (1990) ‘Impact of Goal and Resource Interdependence on Problem-Solving Success’, Journal of Social Psychology129: 507-516.
38.
Johnson, D., Maruyama, G., Johnson, R., Nelson, D. and Skon, L. (1981) ‘Effects of Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Goal Structures on Achievement: A Meta-analysis’, Psychological Bulletin89: 47-62.
39.
Jones, A. and Mercer, N. (1993) ‘Theories of Learning and Information Technology’, in P. Scrimshaw (ed.) Language, Classrooms and Computers. London: Routledge.
40.
King, J. and Lonnquist, M. (1994) ‘The Future of Collaborative Research, Qualitative Action Research: Premises, Problems and Prospects’, paper delivered at the University of Minnesota, College of Education.
41.
Lyle, S. (1993) ‘An Investigation into Ways in which Children Talk Themselves into Meaning’, Language and Education7: 181-197.
42.
McMahon, S.L. and Meyers, J.L. (1993) ‘What’s Happening Here? A Comparison of Two Literature Discussion Groups’, paper presented at the National Reading Annual Conference, Charleston, SC.
43.
Mercer, N. (1992) ‘Culture, Context and the Construction of Knowledge’, in P. Light and G. Butterworth (eds) Context and Cognition. London: Harvester/Wheatsheaf.
44.
Mercer, N. (1995) ‘The Quality of Talk in Children’s Collaborative Activity in the Classroom’, Learning and Instruction6: 359-377.
45.
Mercer, N. and Edwards, D. (1981) ‘Ground Rules for Mutual Understanding: A Sociopsychological Approach to Classroom Knowledge’, in N. Mercer (ed.) Language in School and Community. London: Edward Arnold.
46.
Mercer, N., Edwards, D. and Maybin, J. (1988) ‘Putting Context into Oracy: The Construction of Shared Knowledge through Classroom Discourse’, in M. Maclure, T. Phillips and A. Wilkinson (eds) Oracy Matters. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
47.
Norman, K. (ed.) (1992) Thinking Voices: The Work of the National Oracy Project. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
48.
Nystrand, M., Gamoran, A. and Heck, M. (1991) Small Groups in English: When Do They Help Pupils and How Are They Best Used?Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison, Center on the Organization and Resourcing of Schools.
49.
Phillips, T. (1992) ‘Why? The Neglected Question in Planning for Small Groups’, in K. Norman (ed.) Thinking Voices: The Work of the National Oracy Project. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
50.
Pollard, A. (1985) The Social World of the Primary School. London: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
51.
Prentice, M. (1991) ‘A Community of Enquiry’, in Talk and Learning 5-16: An In-Service Pack on Oracy for Teachers. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
52.
Reason, P. (ed.) (1986) Human Inquiry in Action. London: Sage.
53.
Rohrkemper, M. (1985) ‘Individual Differences in Pupils’ Perceptions of Routine Classroom Events’, Journal of Educational Psychology77: 29-44.
54.
Saez, M. and Carretero, A. (1996) ‘From Action Research to the Classroom Case-Study: The History of ANTEC’, Action Research4: 29-48.
55.
Salaman, G. and Globerson, T. (1989) ‘When Teams Do Not Function the Way They Ought To’, International Journal of Educational Research13: 89-99.
56.
Sharan, S. and Shaulov, A. (1989) ‘Cooperative Learning, Motivation to Learn and Academic Achievement’, in S. Sharan (ed.) Cooperative Learning: Theory and Research. New York: Praeger.
57.
Slavin, R. (1983) ‘When Does Cooperative Learning Increase Student Achievement?’, Psychological Bulletin94: 429-445.
58.
Stenhouse, L. (1988) ‘Case Study Methods’, in J. Keeves (ed.) Educational Research Methodology and Measurement: An International Handbook, 2nd edn.Oxford: Pergamon.
59.
Swann, J. (1992) Girls, Boys and Language. London: Blackwell.
60.
Theroux, P. (1986) London Snow. London: Puffin.
61.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1986[1978]) Thought and Language, rev. and ed. by A. Kozulin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
62.
Webb, N. (1992) ‘Testing a Theoretical Model of Student Interaction and Learning in Small Groups’, in R. Hertz-Lazarowitz and N. Miller (eds) Interaction in Cooperative Groups: The Theoretical Anatomy of Group Learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
63.
Webb, N. and Cullian, L. (1983) ‘Group Interaction and Achievement in Small Groups: Stability over Time’, American Educational Research Journal20: 411-423.
64.
Wells, G., Chang, G. and Maher, A. (1990) ‘Creating Classroom Communities of Literate Thinkers’, in S. Sharan (ed.) Cooperative Learning: Theory and Research. New York: Praeger.
65.
Wood, D. (1988) How Children Think and Learn. Oxford: Blackwell.
66.
Wood, D. (1992) ‘Teacher Talk’, in K. Norman (ed.) Thinking Voices: The Work of the National Oracy Project. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
67.
Wordsmith 3.0 text analysis program. Oxford: Oxford University Press, English Language Teaching.
